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ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


ADAPTED  TO  THE 


DIFPERENT   CLASSES  OF   LEARNERS: 


WITH 


AN  APPENDIX; 

COSTTAININS 

RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS 
^OR  ASSISTING  THE  MORE  ADVANCED  STUDENTS 

TO 

WRITE  WITH  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY*^ 


**Thcy  who  are  leamingto  compose  and  arrange  their  sentences  Wui 
accuracy  and  order,  are,leaming,  at  the  same  time,  to  think  with 
accuracy  and  order."  BlaJ  ji. 


BY  LINDLEY  MURRAY. 


PHZZi  ADSXiPHIA  ° 

PUBLISHED  BY  MAROT  Sc  WALTER, 

NO,    87  MARKET-STREET. 


1826. 


t- 


EDUC. 
PSYCH. 
LIBRARY 


GIFT 


EDUCl- 

INTRODUCTION.  psych. 

\V'hen  the  number  and  variety  of  English  Grammars 
already  published,  and  the  ability  •with^hich  some  of  them 
are  written,  are  considered,  little  can  be  exjjected  from  a  new 
compilation,  besides  a  careful  selection  of  the  most  useful  mat- 
ter, and  some  degree  of  improvement  in  the  mode  of  adapting 
it  to  the  understanding,  and  the  gradual  progress  of  leamei-s. 
In  these  respects  something,  perhaps,  may  yet  be  done,  for  the 
ease  and  advantage  of  youn^  persons. 

In  books  designed  for  the  mstiniction  of  youth ,  there  is  a  me- 
dium to  be  observed,  between  treating  the  subject  in  so  exten- 
sive and  minute  a  manner,  as  to  embarrass  and  confuse  their 
minds,  by  offei-mg  too  much  at  once  for  their  comprehension; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  conducting  it  by  such  short  and  gene- 
ral precepts  and  obserA  aticns,  as  con^^ey  to  them  no  clear  and 
precise  information.    A  distribution  of  the  parts,  which  is 
either  defective  or  irregular,  has  also  a  tendency  to  perplex 
the  young  imderstanding,  and  to  retard  its  knowledge  ojf  the 
principles  of  literature.    A  distinct  general  \'iew,  or  outline,  of 
all  the  essential  parts  of  the  study  in  whicli  they  are  engaged ; 
a  gradual  and  judicious  supply  o'f  this  outline;'  and  a  due  ar- 
i-angement  of  the  divisions,  according  to  their  natural  order 
and  connexion,  ?cppear  to  be  among  the  best  means  of  enlight- 
enmg  the  minds  of  youth,  and  of  facilitating  their  acquisition 
of  knowledge.    The  author  of  this  work,  at  the  same  time 
that  he  has  endeavoured  to  avoid  a  plan,  which  may  be  too 
concise  or  too  extensive,  defective  in  its  parts  or  irregular  in 
their  disposition,  has  studied  to  render  his  subject  sufficiently 
easv,  intelligible,  and  comprehensive.    He  does  not  presume 
to  nave  completely  attained  these  objects.    How  far  he  has 
succeeded  in  the  attempt,  and  wherein  he  has  failed,  must  be 
referred  to  the  determination  of  the  judicious  and  candid 
reader. 
]     The  method  which  he  has  adopted,  of  exhibiting  the  per- 
formance in  characters  of  different  sizes,  will,  he  trusts,  be  con- 
ducive to  that  gradual  and  regular  procedure,  which  is  so  fa- 
'  vourable  to  the  business  of  instruction.    The  more  important 
i-ules,  definitions,  and  observations,  and  which  are  therefore 
I  the  jftost  proper  to  be  committed  to  memory,  are  printed  with 
,  a  larger  type ;  whilst  iniles  and  remarks  that  are  of  less  conse- 
quence, that  extend  or  diversify  the  general  idea,  or  that  serv^e 
as  explanations,  are  contained  in  the  smaller  letter:  these,  or 


0K7 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

the  chief  of  them,  will  be  perused  by  the  student  to  the  greatest 
advantage,  if  postponed  till  the  general  system  be  completed. 
The  use  of  notes  and  observations,  in  the  common  and  detached 
TiianntT,  at  tlie  bottom  of  the  page,  would  not,  it  is  imagined, 
be  so  likely  to  attract  the  perusal  of  youth,  or  admit  of  so  am- 
ple and  regular  an  illustration,  as  a  continued  and  uniforni. 
order  of  the  several  subjects.  In  adopting  this  mode,  care  has 
been  taken  to  adjust  it  so  that  the  whole  may  be  peinised  in  a 
connected  progress,  or  the  part  contained  in  the  larger  charac- 
tei'.  read  in  order  by  itself.  Many  of  the  notes  and  observa- 
tions are  intended,  not  only  to  explain  the  subjects,  and  to  illus- 
trate them,  by  comparative  views  of  the  grammar  of  other 
languages,  and  of  the  various  sentiments  of  English  gramma- 
rians; but  also  to  invite  the  ingenious  student  to  inquiry  and 
reflection,  and  to  prompt  to  a  more  enlarged,  critical,  and  phi- 
losophical reseai'ch. 

With  respect  to  the  definitions  and  rules,  it  may  not  be  im- 
|i roper  more  particularly  to  observe,  that  in  selecting  and 
terming  them,  it  has  been  the  autlior's  aim  to  render  them  as 
exact  and  comprehensive,  and,  at  the  same  time,  as  intelligi- 
ble to  young  mmds,  as  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  the  dim- 
I'.ulties  attending  it,  would  admit.  He  presumes  that  they  arc 
also  calculated  to  be  readily  committed  to  memory,  and  easily 
retained.  For  this  purpose,  he  has  been  solicitous  to  select 
terais  that  are  smooth  and  voluble ;  to  proportion  the  mem- 
bers of  the  sentences  to  one  another ;  to  avoid  protracted  pe- 
riods ;  and  to  give  the  whole  definition  or  rule,  as  much  har- 
mony of  expression  as  he  could  devise. 

From  the  sentiment  generally  admitted,  that  a  proper  selec- 
tion of  faulty  composition  is  more  instructive  to  the  young 
grammarian,  than  any  rules  and  examples  of  propriety  that 
can  be  given,  the  Compiler  has  been  induced  to  pay  peculiar 
attention  to  this  part  of  the  subject ;  and  though  the  instances 
of  false  gi-ammar,  under  the  rules  of  Syntax,  are  numerous,  it  is 
hoped  they  will  not  be  found  too  many,  when  their  variety  and 
usefulness  are  considered. 

Jn  a  work  which  professes  itself  to  be  a  compilation,  and 
which,  from  the  nature  and  desigii  of  it,  must  consist  chiefly 
of  materials  selected  from  the  writings  of  others,  it  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  apologize  for  the  use  which  the  Compiler  has 
made  of  his  predecessors'  labours ;  or  for  omitting  to  insert 
their  names.  From  the  alterations  which  have  been  frequently*] 
made  in  the  sentiments  and  the  language,  to  suit  the  connexion,  ' 
and  to  adapt  them  to  the  particular  purposes  for  which  they^ 
are  introduced,  and,  in  many  instances,  from  the  uncertainty 
to  whom  the  passages  originally  belonged,  the  insertion  of 
names  could  seldom  be  made  with  propriety.    But  if  this  could 
have  been  generally  done,  a  work  of  this  nature  would  derive  ' 
no  advantage  from  it,  equal  to  the  inconvenience  of  crowding 
the  pages  with  a  repetition  of  names  and  references.    It  isj 


■  I 


iNTRODUGTieN.  ,.^ 

-however,  proper  to  acknowledge,  in  general  terms,  that  the 
authors  to  whom  the  grammatical  part  of  this  compilation  is 
Brincipally  indebted  for  its  materials,  are  Harris,  Johnson, 
Lowth,  Priestley,  Beattie,  Sheridan,  Walker,  and  Coote. 

The  Rules  and  Observations  respecting  Perspicuity,  &c. 
contained  in  the  Appendix,  and  which  are,  chiefly,  extracted 
from  the  writings  oi  Blair  and  Campbell,  will,  it  is  presumed, 
form  a  proper  addition  to  the  Grammar. <*  The  subjects  are 
very  nearly  related ;  and  the  study  of  perspicuity  and  accuracy 
in  writing,  appears  naturally  to  follow  that  of  Grammar.  A 
competent  accjuaintance  with  the  principles  of  both,  will  pre- 
pare and  qualify  the  students,  for  prosecuting  those  additional 
improvements  in  language,  to  which  they  may  be  properly 
directed. 

On  the  utility  and  importance  of  the  study  of  Grammar,  and 
the  principles  of  Composition,  much  might  be  advanced,  for 
the  encouragement  of  persons  in  early  life^to  apply  themselves 
to  this  branch  of  learning ;  but  as  the  limits  of  this  Introduc-r 
tion  will  not  lallow  of  many  observations  on  the  subject,  a  few 
leading  sentiments  are  all  that  can  be  admitted  here  with  pro- 
riety.  As  words  are  the  signs  of  our  ideas,  and  the  medium 
y  which  we  perceive  the  sentiments  of  others,  and  commu- 
nicate our  own ;  and  as  signs  exhibit  the  things  which  they  are 
intended  to  represent,  more  or  less  accurately,  according  as 
their  real  or  established  conformity  to  those  things  is  more  or 
less  exact ;  it  is  evident,  that  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  nature  and  properties  of  words,  of  their  relation  to  each 
other,  and  of  their  established  connexion  with  the  ideas  to 
which  they  are  applied,  will  be  the  certainty  and  ease,  with 
which  we  transfuse  our  sentiments  into  the  minds  of  one  ano- 
ther ;  and  that,  without  a  competent  knowledge  of  this  kind, 
we  shall  frequently  be  in  hazard  of  misunderstanding  others, 
and  of  being  misunderstood  ourselves.  It  may  indeed  be 
justly  asserted,  that  many  of  the  differences  in  opinion  amongst 
men,  with  the  disputes,  contentions,  and  alienations  of  heart, 
which  have  too  otten  proceeded  from  such  differences,  have 
been  occasioned  by  a  want  of  proper  skill  in  the  connexion  and 
meaning  of  word.s,  and  by  a  tenacious  misapplication  of  lan- 
guage. 

One  of  the  best  supports,  which  the  recommendation  of  this 
study  can  receive,  in  small  compass,  may  be  derived  from  the 
following  sentiments  of  an  eminent  and  candid  writer*  on  lan- 
guage and  composition.  "  All  that  regards  the  study  of  com- 
'*  position,  merits  the  higher  attention  upon  tWs  account,  that 
"it  is  intimately  connected  with  the  improvement  of  our  intel- 
''lectual  powers.  For  T  must  be  allowed  to  say,  that  when  we 
"^are  employed,  after  a  proper  manner,  in  the  study  of  compo- 
"  sition,  we  are  cultivatxiie,-  tne  understanding  itself.    The  study 

*  Blair    . 
A  «   . 


6  iJitk^nucTioN, 

'*of  ai*ranging  and  expressing  our  thoughts  with  propnety. 
'*  teaches  to  think,  as  well  as  to  speak,  accurately." 

Befoi-e  the  close  of  this  Introduction,  it  maj  not  be  super» 
iluous  to  observe,  that  the  author  of  the  following  work  has  no 
interest  in  it,  but  that  which  arises  from  the  hope,  that  it  will 
prove  of  some  advantage  to  young  persons,  and  relieve  the 
labours  of  those  who  are  employed  in  their  education.  He 
wishes  to  promote,  in  some  degree,  the  cause  of  virtue,  as  well 
as  of  learning;  and,  with  this  view,  he  has  been  studious,  through 
the  whole  of  the  work,  not  only  to  avoid  every  example  and 
illustration,  which  mi^ht  have  an  improper  effect  on  the  minds 
of  youth ;  but  also  to  introduce,  on  many  occasions,  such  as  have 
a  moral  and  religious  tendency.  His  attention  to  objects  of  so 
much  importance  will,  he  trusts,  meet  the  approbation  of  every 
well-disposed  reader.  If  they  were  faithfully  regarded  in  ail 
books  of  education,  they  would  doubtless  contribute  very  mate- 
rially to  the  order  and  happiness  of  society,  by  guarding  the  in- 
nocence and  cherishing  the  virtue  of  the  rising  generation. 

HolgatCy  near  York,  1795. 


ADVERTISEMENT 

TO  THE  NINTH  EDITION. 


The  eighth  edition  of  this  Grammar  received  considerable 
alterations  and  additions:  but  works  of  this  nature  admit  of 
repeated  improvements;  and  are,  perhaps,  never  complete. 

The  author,  solicitous  to  render  his  b^k  more  worthy  of  the 
encouraging  approbation  bestowed  on  it  by  the  public,  has  again 
revised  the  work  with  care  and  attention .  Tlie  new  edition,  he 
hopes,  wiU  be  found  much  improved.  The  additions,  which 
are  very  considerable,  are,  chiefly,  such  as  are  calculated  to ' 
expand  the  learner's  views  of  the  subject ;  to  obviate  oWec- 
tions ;  and  to  render  the  study  of  grammar  both  easy  and  in- 
teresting. This  edition  contains  also  a  new  and  enlarged  sys- 
tem of  parsing;  copious  lists  of  nouns  aiTanged  according  to 
their  gender  and  number;  and  many  notes  and  observations, 
which  serve  to  extend,  or  to  explain,  particular  rules  and  posi- 
tions.* 

The  writer  is  sensible  that,  after  all  his  endeavours  to  eluci- 
date the  principles  of  the  work,  there  are  few  of  the  divisions, 
ari'angements,  definitions,  or  rules,  a^inst  which  critical  inge- 
nuity cannot  devise  plausible  objections.  The  subject  is  at- 
tended with  so  much  intricacy,  and  admits  of  views  so  vari- 
ous, that  it  was  not  possible  to  render  every  part  of  it  unex- 
ceptionable ;  or  to  accommodate  the  work,  in  all  resp>ects,  to 
the  opinions  and  prepossessions  of  every  grammarian  and 
teacher.  If  the  author  has  adopted  that  system  which,  on  the 
whole,  is  best  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  conforma- 
ble to  the  sentiments  of  the  most  judicious  grammarians;  if  his 
reasonings  and  illustrations,  respecting  particular  points,  are 
founded  on  just  principles,  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  English 
language ;  he  has,  perhaps,  done  all  that  could  reasonably  be 
expected  in  a  work  of  this  nature ;  and  he  may  waiTantably 
indidge  a  hope,  that  the  book  will  be  still  more  extensively 
approved  and  circulated. 

*  The  author  conceives  that  the  occasional  strictures,  dispersed  through  the 
book,  and  intended  to  illustrate  and  support  a  number  of  important  grammatical 
points,  will  not,  to  young  persons  of  ingenuity,  appear  to  be  dry  and  useless  dis- 
cussions. He  is  persuaded  that,  by  such  persons,  they  will  be  read  with  atten- 
tion. And  he  presumes  ihat  these  strictures  will  gratify  their  cnriosilv,  stimujatfr 
application,  and  give  solidity  and  permanence  to  their  grammatical  knowledge. 
In  the  Octavo  edition  of  the  Grammar,  the  reader  will  find  many  addHi(»iai  dis- 
cussions of  this  nature. 

UolsaU,  near  York,  1804 


CONTENTS* 


PART    I. ORTHOaRAPBr. 

CHAP.  1.         Of  letters.^                                             Pag<r 
Sect.  1.     Of  the  nature  ot  the  letters,  and  of  at  per- 
fect alphabet 15 

2.  General  observations  on  the  sounds  of  the 

letters. 20 

3.  The  nature  of  articulation  explalined.     .     .  30 

CHAP.  2.  Of  syllables^  and  the  rules  for  ar- 
ranging them 33 

CHAP.  3.         Of  words  in  general,  and  the  rules 

for  spelling  them 34 

PART  II. Etymology. 

CHAP.  1 .        A  general  view  of  the  parts  of  speech.  3S 

CHAP.  2.         Of  the  articles .41 

CHAP.  3.         Of  substantives. 

Sect.  1.     Of  substantives  in  general 43 

2.  Of  gender 44 

3.  Of  number 46 

4.  Of  case ^    .     .     .     .  48 

CHAP<  4. .        Of  adjectives. 

Sect.  1.     Of  the' nature  of  adjectives,  and  the  degrees 

of  comparison 52 

2.     Remarks  on  the  subject  of  comparison.     .     .  54 

c^AP.  5.         Of  pronouns 55 

Sect.'l.     Of  the  personal  pronouns ib. 

2.  Of  the  relative  pronouns.       ......  57" 

3.  Of  the  adjective  pronouns 5S, 

CHAP.  6.         Of  verbs. 

Sect.  1.     Ot  the  nature  of  verbs  in  general.       ...  6S 

2.  Of  number  and  person 66 

3.  Of  moods  and  participles •  &T 


W  CONTE^fTS. 

Sect.  4.    Remarks  on  the  potential  mood 70 

5.  Of  the  tenses .-     .     ,     .       72 

6.  The  conjugation  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  to  have 

and  to  be 7& 

7.  The  auxiliary  verbs  conjugated  in  their  simple 

form  ;  with  observations  on  their^  peculiar 

nature  and  force ' .     .     .  87 

8.  The  conjugation  of  regular  verbs.        ...  91 

9.  Observations  on  passive  verbs.  ....  99 

10.  Of  irregular  verbs 102 

11.  Of  defective  verbs ;  and  of  the  diflferent  ways      * 

in  which  verbs  are  conjugated 108 

CHAP.  7.        Of  adverbs f     .     .     109 

CHAP.  8.        Of  prepositions 113 

CHAP.  9.         Of  conjunctions.        115 

CHAP.  10.       Of  interjections 119 

CHAP.  11.       Of  derivation. 

Sect.  1.     Of  the  vatious  ways  in  wliich  words  are  deriv- 
ed from  one  another 119 

2.  A  sketch  of  the  steps,  by  which  the  English 
language  has  risen  to  its  present  state  of 
refinement 123 

PART  III. Syntax.  125 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  article 151 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  noun. 

Of  several  nouns  joined  by  copulatives 130 

Of  nouns  connected  by  disjunctives 133 

Of  nouns  of  multitudef. 134 

Of  one  noun  governing  another  in  the  possessive  case.     .  153 
Oi.the  syntax  of  the  pronoun. 

..    Of  pronouns  agreeing  with  their  antecedents 135 

Of  the  relative  being  nominative  to  the  verb.         .     .     .  139 
Of  the  relative  preceded  by  nominatives  of  different  per- 
sons   141 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  adjective 142 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  verb. 

Of  the  verb's  agreement  with  the  nominative  case.        .  126 

Of  verbs  active  requiring  the  objective  case 159 

Of  one  verb  governing  another  in  the  infinitive  mood.     .  161 

Of  verbs  related  in  point  of  time 163 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  participle. 167 

Of  the  rules  respecting  adverbs. 

Of  the  position  of  adverbs 169 

Of  two  negatives 112 


CONTENTS,  11 

Page 

Qf  the  S3nitax  of  prepositions 173 

Of  the  syntax  of  conjunctions. 

Of  conjunctions  connecting  the  same  moods,  tenses,  and 
cases i 176 

Of  conjunctions  requiring  the  subjunctive  mood,  Sic.     .     178 

Of  the  syntax  of  interjections 138 

Of  comparisons  by  the  conjunction  than  or  as.      187 

Directions  respecting  the  ellipsis 188 

(jreneral  rule  of  syntax.         192 

Directions  for  parsing 195 

PART   IV. -iPROSODY. 

CHAP.  1.         Of  pronunciation 504 

Sect  1.  Of  accent 204 

2.  Of  quantity 209 

3.  Of  emphasis 211 

4.  Of  pauses 21$ 

5.  Of  tones 218 

CHAP.  2.  Of  versification.         .....  229 

Op  Punctuation. 

CHAP.  1.         Of  the  comma 235 

GHAP.  2.        Of  the  semicolon 240 

CHAP.  3.         Of  the  colon 241 

CHAP.  4.         Of  the  period.       ......  24? 

CHAP.  5.        Of  the  clash,  notes  of  interrogation, 

exclamation,  capitals,  &c.         .  243 

APPENDIX. 

RULES   AND    OBSERVATIONS  FOR   PROMOTING  PERSPI- 
CUITY  AND  ACCURACY  IN  WRITING. 

PARTI. 

Of  perspicuity  mid  accuracy  of  expression,  with  respect  to 
single  words  andphrcLses, 

t^BAP.  1.         Of  puritjr 249 

>  CHAP.  2.        Of  propriety ^q 

PHAP.  3.        Of  precision ,     .     256 


1<8  CONTENTS. 

PART  n. 

J)f  pmjficaHty  and  accuracy  of  expression^  with  resfttl  U 
the  construction  of  sentenees, 

Pa*e 

CHAP.  I .  X>i  the  clearness  of  a  sentence.  »  26 1 

ciHAP.  2.  Of  the  unity  of  a  sentence.     .  .  26-6 

CHAP.  3.  Of  the  strength  of  a  sentence.  .  270 

CHAP.  4.  Of  figures  of  speech.     .     .    »  .  QS6 

ADDBESSTp  irOUNGSTUDi:NTS»       .        *      .      .      .      304 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  is  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  the  English  language  with  propriety. 
It  is  divided  into  four  parts,  viz.  orthographv. 

ETYMOLOGY,  SYNTAX,  and  PROSODY. 

This  division  may  be  rendered  more  intelligible  to  the 
student,  by  observing,  in  other  words,  that  Grammar 
treats,  first,  of  the  form  and  sound  of  the  letters,  the  cojii 
bination  of  letters  into  syllables,  and  syllables  into  woids : 
secondly,  of  the  diflferent  sorts  of  words,  their  yariou» 
modifications,  and  their  derivation ;  thirdly,  of  the  union 
and  right  order  of  words  in  the  forraation,of  a  sentence  : 
and  lastly,  of  the  just  pronunciation,  and  poetical  con- 
struction of  sentences. 


PART  I. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OP    THE    LETTERS. 


Section  1 .     Of  the  nature  of  the  Letters,  and  of  a  perfect 
Alphabet. 

Orthography  teaches  the  nature  and  powers  of  let- 
ters, and  the  just  method,«of  spelling  words. 

A  letter  is  the  first  principle,  or  least  part,  of  a 
word.     ■  %^ 

The  letters  of  theJGnglish  language,  called  the 
English  Alphabet,  are  twenty-six  in  number, 
i  These  letters  are  the  representatives  of  certain  ar- 
ticulate sounds,  the  elements  of  the  language.  An 
articulate  sound,  is  the  sound  of  the  human' voice, 
formed  by  the  organs  of  speech. 


14  ENGLISH  GRAMMAk- 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Anglo -Saxon,^RomaK^ 
Italic,  and  Old  English  Characters. 

Saxon.        Roman.        Italic.     Old  English.     Namje. 

Cap.    SmaU.      Cap.     Small.      Cap.      Small.      Cap.     SmaU. 


^. 

a 

A 

a 

^ 

a 

^ 

a 

au 

B  ' 

b 

B 

b 

B 

b 

M 

i} 

bee. 

#    ■ 

0 

C 

c 

C 

c 

e 

t 

see. 

D 

b 

D 

d 

D 

d 

B 

tr 

dee. 

e 

e 

E 

e 

E 

e 

m 

e 

ee. 

F 

P 

F 

f 

F 

f 

JF 

f 

€' 

Ix 

S 

G 

g 

G 

S 

^ 

Q 

jee. 

b 

h    • 

H; 

h 

H 

h 

m 

!) 

aitc/t. 

I 

i 

I] 

i 

I 

i 

K; 

i 

i  or  eye. 

•    ■..>■ 

J 

J 

J 

J 

3 

1 

j^y- 

K 

k 

K 

k 

K 

k 

m 

ife 

hay. 

L/ 

I 

L 

1 

L 

I 

% 

I 

el 

CO 

m 

M 

m 

M 

m 

j» 

in 

em. 

N 

n 

N 

n. 

■   N 

n 

K 

n 

en. 

O 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

(B 

0 

Q' 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

m 

» 

pee. 

Q 

q 

^^ 

9 

(©. 

a 

cue. 

R  i 

B 

R 

r 

R 

r 

M 

r 

ar. 

S 

r   i, 

S 

fs 

S 

fs 

^ 

n 

ess. 

T 

T 

t 

T 

t 

r 

t 

tee. 

D 

b/A 

U 

u 

V 

U 
V 

u 

V 

U 
V 

u 

V 

m 

15 

u  or  y$u. 
vee. 

10 

l- 

w 

w 

W 

w 

S13 

in 

double  u. 

T 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X    ' 

X 

V 

eks. 

7 

y 

Y 

y 

Y 

y 

¥ 

s 

wy. 

Z 

2. 

Z 

z 

z 

z 

Z 

1 

zed. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 


15 


A  perfect  alphabet  of  the  English  language,  and,  in- 
deed, of  every  other  language,  would  contain  a  number 
<jf  letters,  precisely  equal  to  the  number  of  simple  arti- 
culate sounds  belonging  to  the  language.  Every  simple 
sound  would  have  its  distinct  character ;  and  that  charac- 
ter be  the  representative  of  no  other  sound.  But  this 
is  far  from  being  the  state  of  the  English  alphabet.  It  has 
more  original  sounds  than  distinct  significant  letters;  and,^*^ 
consequently,  some  of  these  letters  are  made  to-  repre- 
sent, not  one  sound  alone,  but  several  sounds.  This  will 
appear  by  reflecting,  that  the  sounds  signified  by  the 
united  letters  //i,  sh^  ng,  are  elementary,  and  have  no  sin- 
gle appropriate  characters,  in  our  alphabet :  and  that  the 
letters  a  and  u  represent  the  different  sounds  heard  in 
hat,  hate,  hall;  and  in  but,  bull,  rtwle. 

To  explain  this  subject  more  fully  to  the  learners,  we 
slmll  set  down  the  characters  made  use  of  to  represent  all 
the  elementary  articulate  sounds  of  our  language,  as 
nearly  in  the  manner  and  order  of  the  present  English 
alphabet,  as  the  design  of  the  subject  will  admit ;  and  shall 
annex  to  each  character  the  syllable  or  word,  which  con- 
tains its4)roper  and  dip.tinct  sound.  And  here  it  will  be 
proper  to  begin  with  tfie  vowels. 
J  setters  denoting  the 
simple  sounds. 

a  as  heard  in 


^ 


as 
as 
as 
as 
as 
as 
as 
as 
as 
as 
as 
as 
as 


Words  containino 
simple  sound 
fate   M 
fall 
fat 
far 
me 
met 
pine 
pin  ,^ 
no 
not 
move 
mule 

'^  tub 

bull 


the 


By  this  list  it  appears,  that  there  are  in  the  English 
language  fourteen  smiple  vowel  sounds:  but  as  i  and  ?/, 
\^  lien  pronounced  long,  may  be  considered  as  diphthong*, 


1  b  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

or  diphthongal  vowels,  our  language,  strictly  speaking* 
contains  but  twelve  simple  vowel  sounds  j  to  represent 
which,  we  have  only  five  distinct  characters  or  letters. 
If  a  \i\far,  is  the  same  specific  sound  as  a  in  fat;  and  u 
ill  (mlL  the  same  as  o  in  7nove,  which  is  tlie  opinion  of 
sorue  grammarians;  then  there  are  but  ten  original  vowel 
-ounds  in  the  English  language. 

The  following  nst  denotes  the  sounds  of  the  consonants, 
being  in  number  twenty-two. 
1,( 


•I (ers  denoting  the 

Words  containing  the 

s)mple  sounds. 

simple  sounds. 

b 

as  heard  in 

bay,  tub 

d 

as 

in 

d^,  sad 

f 

as 

in 

ofl^for 

V 

as 

in 

van,  love 

h* 

as 
as 

in 
in 

egg,  go 
hopj  ho 
kill,  oak 

k 

as^ 

in 

1 

as ' 

in 

lap,  all* 

m 

as 

in 

my,  mum 

n 

as 

in    ^ 

no,  on 

P 

as 

ir^- 

pin,  map 

r 

as 

ill 

rap,  cry 

s 

as 

in 

so,  lass 

7 

as 

in 

zed,  buzz 

■        t 

as 

in 

top,  mat 

W 

as 

in 

wo,  will 

V 

aft, 

in 

ye,  yes 

«g 

as 

in 

ing,  sing 

sh 

as    • 

in    , 

shy,  ash 
thin,  thick 

th  . 

as 

in 

th 

as 

in 

then,  them 

*     zh 

as 

in 

pleasure 

Several  letters  marked  in  the  English  alphabet,  as  con- 
Sonants,  are  either  superfluous,  or  represent,  not  simple, 
but  complex  sounds.  C,  for  instance,  is  superfluous  in 
both  its  sounds;*^ the  one  being  expressed  by  k,  and  the 
jofher  by  s.  G,  in  the  soft  pronunciation,  is  not  a  simple, 
but  a  complex  sound ;  as  age  is  pronounced  aidge,     J  i^ 

*  Some  grammarians  suppose  k  to  mark  only  an  aspiration,  or  breathing;  b-i 
ti.  appears  to  be  a  distinct  sound,  and  formed  in  a  particular  manner,  by  the  tn 
gans  of  speech.  Encydopoedia  Brilamiica. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  17 

^innecessary,  because  its  sound,  and  that  of  the  soft  g^  are 
i  n  our  language  tlie  same.  Q,  with  its  attendant  if,  is  either 
complex,  and  resolvable  into  kw,  as  in  quality;  or  unneces- 
sary, because  its  sound  is  the  same  with  A-,  as  in  opaque. 
X  is  compounded  of  ^s,  as  in  exainple;  or  of  A:s,  as  in  expect. 

From  the  preceding  representation,  it  appears  to  be  a 
point  of  considerable  ixnportance,  that  every  learner  of 
the  English  language  should  be  taught  to  pronounce  per- 
fectly, and  with  facility,  every  original  simple  sound  ttiat 
belongs  to  it.  By  a  timely  and  judicious  care  in  this  re- 
spect, the  voice  will  be  prepared  to  utter,  with  ease  and 
accuracy,  every  combination  of  sounds;  and  taught  to 
avoid  that  contused  and  imperfect  manner  of  pronoun- 
cing words,  which  accompanies,  through  life,  many  per- 
sons who  have  not,  in  this  respect,  been  properly  in- 
structed at  an  early  period. 

Letters  are  divided  into  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

A  Vowel  is  an  articulate  sound,  that  can  be  perfectly 
uttered  by  itself:  as,  a,  e,  o:  which  are  formed  with- 
out the  help  of  any^other  sound. 

A  Consonant  is  an?%rticulate  sound,  which  cannot 
be  perfectly  uttered  without  the  help  of  a  vowel:  as, 
b,  d^f,  /;  which  require  vowels  to  express  them  fully. 

The  vow^els  are,  a,  e,  i,  o,  ?/,  and^sometimes  w  and  y. 

?Fand  y  are  consonants  when  they  begin  a  word  or 
syllable;  but  in  every  other  situation  they  are  vowels. 

It  is  generally  acknowledged  by  the  best  grammarian?, 
that  w  and  y  are  consonants  when  they  begin  a  syllable  or 
word,  and  vowels  when  they  end  one.  That  they  are 
consonants,  when  used  as  initials,  seems  to  be  evident 
from  their  not  admitting  the  article  an  before  them,  as  it 
would  be  improper  to  say,  an  walnut,  an  yard,  &c.;  and 
from  their  following  a  vowel  without  any  hiatus  or  diffi- 
culty of  utterance ;  as,  frosty  winter,  rosy  youth.  That  they 
are  vowels  in  other  situations,  appears  from  their  regularly 
taking  the  sound  of  other  vowels ;  as,  w  has  the  exact  sound 
of  <«  in  saw,  few,  now,  &c.;  and  y  that  of  i,  in  hymn,  fly, 
rrystal,  &c.    See  the  letters  W  and  Y,  pages  30  and  31.^ 

*  The  letters  w  and  y,  are  of  an  ambij^ous  nature ;  being  cotwonanta  at  tlie 
•jcginnine  of  wordp,  and  vowels  at  the  end.  Encyclopoedia,  Britantiica. 

WALKER'S  Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary,  page  24,  third  edition. 
FERRY'S  English  Dictionary,  Preface,  page  7. 

B2 


i8  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Wc*pr^ent  the  following  as  more  exact  and  philoso- 
phical definitionfi  of  a  vowel  and  consonant. 

A  vowel  is  a  simple,  articulate  sound,  perfect  in  itself, 
and  formed  by  a  continued  effusion  of  the  breath,  and  a 
certain  conformation  of  the  mouth,  without  any  alteration 
in  the  position,  or  any  motion  of  the  organs  of  speech, 
from  the  moment  the  vocal  sound  commences,  till  it  ends. 
,  A  consonant  is  a  simple,  articulate  sound,  imperfect  by 
4|felf,  but  which,  joined  with  a  ¥Owel,  forms  a  complete 
'^und,  by  a  particular  motion  or  contact  of  the  organs  of 
speech. 

Some  .gi'ammarians  subdivide  vowels  into  the  simple 
and  the  compound.  But  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any 
foundation  for  the  distinction.  Simplicity  is  essential  to 
the  nature  of  a  vowel,  which  excludes  every  degree  of 
mixed  or  compound  sounds.  It  requires,  according  to 
the  definition,  but  one  conformation  of  the  organs  of 
speech,  to  form  it,  and  no  motion  in  the  organs,  whilst 
it  is  forming. 

Consonants  are  divided  int^|^les  and  semi-vowels. 

The  mutes  cannot  be  soiiflHed  at  all,  without  the 
aid  of  a  vowel.  They  are  b,  p,  t,  d,  k,  and  c  and  g 
hard. 

The  semi-vow^s  have  an  imperfect  sound  of  them- 
selves. They  are  /,  /,  m,  n,  r,  v,  s,  z,  x,  and  c  and  g 
soft. 

Four  of  the  semi-vowels,  namely,  /,  w,  ??,  r,  are  also 
distinguished  by  the  name  oi liquids^  from  their  readily 
uniting  vvith  cither  consonants,  and  flowing  as  it  wera 
into  their  sounds. 

We  have  shown  above,  that  it  is  essential  to  the  nature 
of  a,  consonant,  that  it  cannot  be  fully  uttered  without 
the  aid  of  a  vowel.  We  may  further  observe,  that  even 
the  names  of  the  consonants,  as  they  are  pronounced  in 
reciting  the  alphabet,  require  the  help  of  vowels  to  ex- 
press tjiem.  In  pronouncing  the  names  of  the  mutes, 
the  assistant  yowQhfolloiv  the  consonants;  as,.6e,  pe,  te^ 
de^  ka.  In  pronouncing  the  names  of  the  semi -vowels, 
the  vowels  generally  precede  the  consonants:  as,  ef,  elf 
eviiy  en,  «r,  es,  ex\  The  exceptions  are,  ce,  ge^  ve,  zed. 
This  distinction  between  the  nature  and  the  name  of  a 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  IP 

consonant,  is  of  great  importance,  and  should  be  well  ex  - 
plained  to  the  pupil.  Tney  are  frequently  confounded 
by  writers  on  gi'ammar.  Observations  and  reasonings  on 
the  name,  are  often  applied  to  explain  tlie  nature,  of  a 
consonant:  and,  by  this  means,  the  student  is  led  into 
error  and  pei-plexity,  respecting  these  elements  of  lan- 
guage. -It  should  be  impressed  on  his  mind,  that  the 
name  of  every  consonant  is  a  complex  sound;  but  that 
the  consonant  itself,  is  always  a  simple  sound. 

Some  writers  have  descnbed  the  mutes  and  semi- 
vowels, with  their  subdivisions,  nearly  in  the  following 
manner.  -■■        , 

The  mutes  are  those  consonants  whose  sounds  caraiot 
be  protracte^fe  The  semi-vowels,  such  whose  sounds  can 
be  continued  at  pleasure,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  vow- 
els, from  which  they  derive  their  name. 

The  mutes  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and  impure. 
The  pure  are  those  whose  sounds  cannot  be  at  all  pro- 
longed :  they  are  A:,  jo,  t.  The  impure,  are  those  whose 
sounds  may  be  continued,  though  for  a  very  short  space : 
thev  are  6,  d,  g.     4|^ 

The  semi -vowel  sM&y  be  subdivided  into  votal  and 
aspirated.  The  vocal  are  those  which  are  formed  by  the 
voice ;  the  aspirated,  those  formed  by  the  breath.  There 
are  eleven  vocal,  and  five  aspirated.  The  vocal  are/,  m, 
w,  r,  V,  w,  y,  z,  th  flat,  zh,  ng:  the  aspirated,  /,  A,  s,  th 
sharp,  sh. 

Tne  vocal  semi -vowels  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and 

impure.     The  pure  are  those  which  are  fonned  entirely 

by  the  voice :   the  impure,  such  as  hav^i  a  mixture  of 

breath  with  the  voice.     There  are  seven  pur^^ — I,  m,  n, 

r,  w,  y,  ng;  four  impure — v,  z,  th  flat,  zh, 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  tvvo  vowels.proaounced  by 

a  simple  impulse  of  the  voice;  asea  in  beat,  01/  in  souna. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels,  pro 

nounced  in  like  manner;  as,  ea\i  in  beau,  iew  in  viev^r.. 

A  proper  diphthone  is  that  in  which  both  the  vow 

els  are  sounded;  as,  01  in  voice,  o^i  in  ounce. 

An  improper  diphthong  has  but  one  of  the  vowels 
sounded;  as,  ea  in  eagle,  oa  in  boat. 
Each  of  the  diphtliongal  letters  was,  doubtless,  ongi^- 


30  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

nally  heard  in  pronouncing  the  words  which  contain  them. 
Though  this  is  not  the  case  at  present,  with  respect  to 
many  of  them,  these  combinations  still  retain  the  name 
of  diphthongs ;  but,  to  distinguish  them,  the^r  are  marked 
by  the  term  improper.  As  the  diphthong  derives  its  nam& 
and  nature  from  its  sound,  and  not  from  its  letters,  and 
properly  denotes  a  double  vowel  sound,  no  union  of  two 
vowels,  where  one  is  silent,  can,  in  strictness,  be  entitled 
to  that  appellation;  and  the  single  letters  i  and  w,  when 
pronounced  long,  must,  in  this  view,  be  considered  as 
diphthongs.  The  triphthongs,  having  at  most  but  two 
sounds,  are  merely  ocular,  and  are,  therefore,  by  some 
grammarians,  classed  with  the  diphthongs 

Section  2,     General  observations  on  the  sounds  of  the 

letters, 

A 

.^  has  four  sounds ;  the  long  or  slender,  the  broad,  the 
short  or  open,  and  the  middle. 

The  long;  as  in  name,  basin,  cije^tion. 

The  broad ;  as  in  call,  wall,  iU.^ 

Tlie  short;  as  in  barrel,  fancy,  glass. 

The  middle ;  as  in  far,  farm,  father. 

The  diphthong  ««  generally  sounds  like  a  short  in  pro- 
per names ;  as  in  Balaam,  Canaan,  Isaac ;  but  not  in  Baal. 
Gaal. 

^e  has  the  sound  of  long  e.  It  is  sometimes  found  in 
Latin  words.  Some  authors  retain  this  form ;  as,  aenigma, 
jequator,  &c.;  but  others  ha^ve  laid  it  aside,  and  write 
enigma,  Cesar,  Eneas,  &c. 

The  diphthong  ai  has  exactly  the  long  slender  sound  of 
ff,  as  in  pail,  tail,  &c. ;  pronounced  pale,  tale,  &c. :  except 
plaid,  again,  raillery,  fountain,  Britain,  and  a  few  others. 

^M  is  generally  sounded  like  the  broad  a:  as  in  taught, 
caught,  &c.     Sometimes  like  the  short  or  open  a;  as  in^ 
aunt,  flaunt,  gauntlet,  &c.    It  has  the  sound  of  long  a  in 
hautboy;  and  that  of  o  short  in  laurel,  laudanum,  &c. 

t/iw  has  always  the  sound  of  broad  a;  as  in  bawl,  scrawl, 
rrawl. 

»^y,  like  its  near  relation  ai,  is  pronounced  like  the 
long  slender  sound  of  a;  as  in  pay,  day,  delay. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  31 

B 

B  keeps  one  unvaried  sound,  at  tlie  beginning,  middle, 
and  end  of  woi-ds ;  as  in  bakei>  number,  rhubarb,  &c. 

In  some  words  it  is  silent;  as  in  thumb,  debtor,  subtle, 
&c.    In  others,  besiiies  being  silent,  it  lengthens  thesyl- 
viable,  as  in  climb,  comb,  tomb. 

C  \\2ii  tvvo  "different  sounds. 

A  hard  sound  like  A:,  before  a,  o,  u,  r,  /,  t ;  as  in  cart, 
cottage,  curious,  craft,  tract,  cloth,  &c. ;  and  when  it  ends 
a  syllable;  as  in  victim,  flaccid. 

A  soft  sound  like  s  before  e,  i,  and  y, generally;  as  in 
centre,  face,  civil,  cymbal,  mercy,  &c.  It  has  sometimes 
the  sound  of  shj  as  inidcean,  sccial. 
C  is  mute  ffi^czar,  czarina,  victuals,  &c. 
C,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  according  to  English  orthography, 
never  ends  a  word ;  and  tlierefore  we  find  in  our  best 
dictionaries,  stick,  block,  publick,  politick,  &c.  But 
many  writers  of  latter  years  omit  the  kin  words  of  two 
or  more  syllables ;  and  tliis  practice  is  gaining  ground, 
though  it  is  productivjB  of  irregularities ;  such  as  writing 
mimic  and  mimickrj;  #affic  and  trafficking. 

Ch  is  commonly  sounded  like  tch;  as  in  church,  chin, 
chaff,  charter:  but  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek, 
has  the  sound  oi  k;  as  in  chymist,  scheme,  chorus,  cl^yiie, 
distich;  and  in  foreign  names;  as,  Achish,  Banich, 
Enoch,  &c. 

Ch,  in  some  words  derived  from  the  French,  takes  the 
-sound  of  sh;  as  in  chaise,  chagrin,  chevalier,  machine. 

Ch  in  arch,  before  a  vowel,  sounds  like  k;  as  in  arch- 
iiigel,  archives;  Archipelago ;  except  in  arched,  archery, 
archer,  and  arch-enemy:  but  before  a  consonant  it  always 
sounds  like  tch;  as  in  archbishop,  archduke,  archpresby- 
ter,  &c.  Ch  is  silent  in  schedule,  scliism,  and  yacht. 
D 
D  keeps  one  uniform  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle, 
and  end  of  words ;  as  in  death,  bandage,  kindred ;  unless 
it  may  be  said  to  take  the  sound  of  f,  in  stuffed,  tripped, 
&c.  stuftj^lript,  &c. 

E  has  three  different  sounds. 

A  long  sound ;  as  in  scheme,  glebe,  severe,  pulley. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR- 


\  short  sound ;  as  in  men,  bed,  clemency. 

An  obscure  and  scarcely  perceptible  sound ;  as,  open. 
lucre,  participle. 

It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  middle  a;  as  in  clerk, 
sergeant;  and  sometimes  that  of  short  ii  as  in  England, 
yes,  pretty.  ^'   - 

.^  is  always  mute  at  the  end  of  a  word,  eieept  in  mo 
nosylla,bles  that  have  no  other  vowel ;  as,  me,  he,  she :  or 
in  substantives  derived  from  the  Greek;  as,  catastrophe, 
epitome,  Penelope.  It  is  used  to  soften  and  modify  the 
foregoing  consonants ;  as,  force,  rage,  since,  oblige :  or  to 
lengthen  the  preceding  vowel;  as,  can,  cane;  pm,  pine: 
rob,  robe. 

The  diphthong  ea  is  generally  sounded  like  e  long;  as 
in  appear,  beaver,  creature,  &c.  It  has  also  the  sound  of 
short  e;  as  in  breath,  meadow,  treasure.  And  it  is  some- 
times pronounced  like  the  long  and  slender  a;  as  in  bear, 
break,  great. 

Eaii  has  the  sound  of  long  o;  as  in  beau,  flambeau, 
portmanteau.  In  beauty  and  its  compounds,  it  has  the 
sound  of  longer. 

Ei<f'\n  general,  sounds  the  sara^  as  long  and  slender  «;,  as 
in  deign,  vein,  neighbour,  &c.  It  has  the  sound  of  lon»  e  in 
seize,  deceit,  receive,  either,  neither,  &c.  It  is  sometimes 
pronounced  like  short  i;  as  in  foreign,  forfeit,  sovereign,  &c. 

JEo  is  pronounced  like  e  long;  as  in  people;  and  some- 
times like  e  short ;  as  in  leopard,  jeopardy.  It  has  also  the 
sound  of  short  u;  as  in  dungeon,  sturgeon,  puncheon,  &0s 

Ell  is  always  sounded  like  long  u  or  ew;  as  in  feud, 
deuce.  .  '  ^ 

Ew  is  almost  always  pronounced  like  long  u;  as  in 
few,  new,  dew. 

Ey,  when  the  accent  is  on  it,  is  always  pronounced 
like  a  long;  as  in  bey,  grey,  convey;  except  m  key,  ley. 
where  it  is  sounded  like  long  e. 

When  this  diphthong  is  unaccented,  it  takes  the  sound 
of  e  long;  as,  alley,  valley,  barley. 
F 

F  keeps  one  pure  unvaried  sound  at  th#beginning, 
middle,  aiid  end  of  words;  as,  fancy,  muffin,  mischief, 
&c.;  except  in  of^  in  which  it  has  the  flat  sound  of  Of; 
but  not  in  composition;  as,  whereof,  thereof,  &c.    We 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  2S 

should  not  pronounce,  a  wive's  jointure,  a  calve's  liead ; 
but  a  wife's  jointure,  a  calf's  head. 
G 
G  has  two  sounds:  one  hard;  as  in  gay,  go,  gun:  ther 
other  soft ;  as  in  gem,  giant. 

At  the  end  of  a  word  it  is  always  hard ;  as  in  bag, 
snug,  frog.  It  is  hard  before  «,  o,  u,  /,  and  r;  as,  game, 
gone,  gull,  glory,  grandeur. 

G  before  e,  i,  and  y,  is  soft;  as  in  genius,  gesture,  gin- 
get,  Egypt;  except  in  get,  gewgaw,  finger,  craggy,  and 
some  others. 

G  is  mute  before  n  ,*  as  in  gnash,  si^,  foreign,  &c. 
Gn,  at  the  end  of  a  word,  or  syllable  accented,  gives 
the  preceding  vowel  a  long  sound ;  as  in  resign,  impugn, 
oppugn,  impregn,  impugned ;  pronounced  impuned,  im- 
prene,  &:c. 

Gh,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word*  has  the  sound  of  tire 
hard  o";  as,  ^host,  ghastly :  in  the  middle,  and  sometimes 
at  the  end,  it  is  quite  sdent;  as  in  right,  high,  plough, 
mighty. 

At  the  end  it  has  often  the  sound  of/;  as  in  laugh, 
cough,  tough.  Sometimes  only  the  g  is  sounded;  as  in 
burgh,  burgher. 

H 
The  sound  signified  by  this  letter,  is,  as  before  ob- 
served, an  articulate  sound,  and  not  merely  an  aspira- 
tion. It  is  heard  in  the  words,  hat,  horse,  Hull.  It  is 
seldom  mute  at  the  beginning;  of  a  word.  It  is  always 
silent  after  r;  as,  rhetoric,  rheum,  rhubarb, 

if  final,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  is  always  silent;  as,ahi 
*hah!  oh!  loh!  Sarah,  Messiah. 

From  the  faintness  of  the  sound  of  this  letter,  in  manj 
words,  and  its  total  silence  in  others,  added  to  the  negli- 
gence of  tutors,  and  the  inattention  of  pupils,  it  has  hap- 
pened, that  many  persons  have  become  almost  incapable 
of  acc[uiring  its  just  and  full  pronunciation.    It  is,  tnere- 
foTf ,  incumbent  on  teachers,  to  be  particularly  careful  t# 
inculcate  a  clear  and  distinct  utterance  of  this  sound. 
I 
/  has  a  long  sound ;  as  in  fine :  and  a  short  one ;  as  in  fin. 
The  long  sound  is  always  marked  by  the  e  final  in  mo- 
nosyllables;  as  thin,  thine;  except  give,  live.    Before  r 


^4  P.1CGUSH  O'RAVtMJktt, 

it  is  often  sounded  like  a  short  w;  a»  flirt,  first.  In  some 
words  it  has  the  sound  of  e  longj  as  in  machine,  bomba- 
zine, magazine. 

The  diphthong  ia  is  frequently  sounded  like  ya;  as 
Iq  christian,  filial,  poniard;  pronounced  christ-yan,  &c. 
It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  short  t;  as  in  carriage, 
marriage,  parliament. 

Je  sounds  in  general  like  e  long;  as  in  grief,  thief,  gre- 
nadier. It  has  also  the  sound  of  lon^  i;  as  in. die,  pi^ 
lie:  and  sometimes  that  of  short  i;  as  in  sieve. 

leu  has  the  sound  of  long  tt^  as  in  lieu,  adieu,  purlieu. 

/o,  when  the  accent  is  upon  the  first  vowel,  forms  two 
distinct  syllables;  as,  priory,  violet,  violent.  The  ter- 
minations Hon  and  sioti,  are  sounded  exactly  like  the 
word  shun;  except  when  the  t  is  pi^eceded  by  s  or  a?;  as 
in  question*,  digestion,  combustion,  mixtion,  &c. 

The  triphthong  iau  is  sometimes  pronounced  distinctly 
in  two  syllables ;  as  in  bilious ,  various,  abstemious.  But 
these  vowels  often  coalesce  into  one  syllable;  as  in  pre- 
cious, factious,  noxious. 

J 

»/ is  pronounced  exactly  like  soft  g;  except  in  halle- 
lujah, where  it  is  pronounced  like  y. 

Kh&»  the  sound  of  c  hard,  aftd  is  used  before  e  and  i, 
where,  according  to  English  analogy,  c  would  be  soft; 
asj^kept,  king,  skirts.  It  is  not  sounded  before  n;  as  in 
knife,  knell,  knocker.  It  is  never  doubled,  except  in 
Habakkuk;  but  c  is  used  before  it,  to  shorten  the  vowel 
by  a. double  consonant;  as,  cockle,  picMe,  sucker. 
L 

iv  has  always  a  soft  liquid  sound;  as  in  love,  billow, 
quarrel.  It  is^^  sometimes  mute;  as  in  half,  talk,  psalm. 
The  cusrtom  ig  to  double  the  /at  the  end  of  monosyllables ; 
as,  mill^  will,  fall;  except  where  a  diphthong  precedes  it; 
a»^  hail,  toil,  soil. 

Ze,  at  the  ^d  of  words,  is  pro^it>unced  like  a  weak  eh 
in  which  tiie  e  is  almost  mute;  a§,  table,  shuttle. 
M 

MhifS^  always  the  same  sound;  as,  murmur,  monu- 
mental; except  in  comptroller,  which  is  pronounced 
controller. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  S3 

N  ^     '      . 

iV  has  two  sounds:  the  one  pure;  as  in  man,  net, 
noble;  the  other  a  ringing  sound  like  ng;  as  in  thank, 
banquet,  &c. 

N  is  mute  when  it  ends  a  syllable,  and  is  preceded  by 
m  ;  as,  hymn,  solemn,  autumn. 

The  participial  ing  must  always  have  ils  ringmg  sound ; 
as,  writing,  reading,  speaking.  Some  writers  have  sup- 
posed, that  when  ing  is  preceded  by  ing,  it  should  be 
pronounced  in;  as,  singing,  bringing,  should  be  sounded 
singin,  bringin :  but  as  it  is  a  good  rule,  with  respect 
to  pronunciation,  to  adhere  to  the  written  words,  unless 
custom  has  clearly  decided  otherwise,  it  does  not  seem 
proper  to  adopt  this  innovation. 
0 
O  has  a  long  sound ;  as  in  note,  bone,  obedient,  over : 
and  a  short  one ;  as  in  not,  got^  lot,  trot. 

It  has  sometimes  the  short  sound  ofu;  as,  son,  come, 
attorney.  And  in  some  words  it  is  sounded  like  oo;  as 
in  prove,  move;  and  often  like  cm;  as  in  nor,  for,  lord. 
The  diphthong  oa  is  regularly  pronounced  as  the  long 
sound  of  0  ;  as  in  boat,  oat,  coal ;  except  in  broad,  abroad, 
groat,  where  it  takes  the  sound  of  broad  cr;  as,  brawd,  &c. 
Oe  has  the  sound  of  single  e.  It  is  sometimes  long;  as 
in  foetus,  Antoeci:  and  sometimes  short;  as  in  oecono- 
niics,  oecumenical.  In  doe,  foe,  sloe,  toe,  throe,  hoe,  and 
bilboes,  it  is  sounded  exactly  like  long  o. 

Oi  has  almost  universally  the  double  sOund  of  a  broad 
and  e  lon^  united,  as  in  boy;  as  boil,  toil,  spoil,  joint, 
point,  anonit:  which  should  never  be  pronounced  as  if 
written  bile,  spile,  tile,  &c. 

Oo  almost  always  preserves  its  regular  sound;   as  in 

moon,  soon,  food.    It  has  a  shorter  sound  in  wool,  good, 

foot,  and  a  few  others.     In  blood  and  flood  it  sounds  like 

,  short  u.     Door  and  floor  should  ahvays  be  pronounced  a? 

if  written  dore  and  flore. 

The  diphthong  oic  h?s  six  different  sounds.  The  first 
and  proper  sound  is  equivalent  to  ow  m  down;  as  in 
bound,  found,  surround. 

The  second  is  that  of  short  t<;  as  in  enough,  trouble, 
journey. 

The  third  is  that  of  oo;  as  in  soup,  youth,  tournament 
C 


^26  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  "fourth  is  that  of  long  o;  as  in  though,  mourij. 
]>oultice.  * 

The  fifth  is  that  of  short  o;  as  in  cough,  trough. 

The  sixth  is  that  of  awe;  as  in  ought,  brought,  thought. 

Ow  is  generally  sounded  like  on  in  thou;  as  in  brown, 
dowry,  shower.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  0/  as  in 
snow,  grown,  bestow. 

The  diphthong  oi/  is  but  another  form  for  oi,  and  is 
pronounced  exactly  like  it. 

P  has  always  the  same  sound,  except,  perhaps,  in  cup- 
iioard,  where  it  sounds  like  /;.  It  is  sometimes  mute;  as 
in  psalm,  psalter,  Ptolemy:  and  between  in  and  ^/  as, 
rempt,  empty,  presumptuous. 

Fh  is  generally  pronounced  like/;  as  in  philosophy, 
philanthropy,  Philip. 

In  nephew  and  Stephen,  it  has  the  sound  of  v.  In 
apophthegm,  phthisis,  phthisic,  and  phthisical,  both  let- 
ters are  entirely  dropped. 

Q  is  always  followed  by  w;  as,  quadrant,  queen,  ({uire. 

Qu  is  sometimes  sounded  like  A;  as,  conquer,  liquor, 
risque. 

R 

it  has  a  rough  sound ;  as  in  Rome,  river,  rage :  and  a 
smooth  one;  as  in  bard,  card,  regard. 

Be  at  the  end  of  many  words,  is  pronounced  like  a 
weak  r;  as  in  theatre,  sepulchre,  massacre. 
S 

S  has  two  different  sounds. 

A  soft  and  flat  sound  like  z  ;  as,  besom,  nasal,  dismal. 

A  sharp  hissing  sound;  as,  saint,  sister,  Cyprus. 

It  is  always  sharp  at  the  beginning  of  words. 

At  the  end  of  words  it  takes  the  soft  sound;  as,  his, 
was,  trees,  eyes;  except  in  the  words  this,  thus,  us,  yes, 
rebus,  surplus,  &c.;  and  in  words  terminating  with  oits. 

It  sounds  like  z  before  ion,  if  a  vowel  goes  before;  a?, 
intrusion;  but  like  s  sharp,  if  it  follows  a  consonant;  as, 
conversion.  It  also  sounds  like  z  before  e  mute;  as, 
amuse;  and  before  y  final;  as,  rosy;  and  in  the  words, 
bosom,  desire,  wisdom,  &c. 

S  is  mute  in  isle,  island,  demesne,  viscount. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  27 

T' generally  sounds,  as  in  take,  tempter.  7*  before  ?/, 
when  the  accent  precedes,  sounds  like  tch;  as,  nature, 
virtue,  arc  pronounced,  natchure,  virtcliue.  Ti  before  a 
vowel  has  the  sound  of  sh;  as  in  salvation:  except  in 
sucli  words  as  tierce,  tiara,  &c.  and  unless  an  s  goes  be- 
fore; as,  question;  and  excepting  also  derivatives  from 
words  ending  in  ly;  as,  mighty,  mightier. 

7%  has  two  sounds :  the  one  soft  and  flat;  as,  thus, 
^viiether,  heathen:  the  other  liard  and  sharp;  as,  thing, 
think,  breath. 

Th,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  is  sharp;  as  in  thank, 
t5\ick,  thunder:  except  in  that,  then,  thus,  thither,  and 
some  others.  T/i,  at' the  end  of  words,  is  also  sharp;  as, 
death,  breath,  mouth:  except  in  with,  booth,  beneath,  &c. 

Th,  in  the  middle  of  words,  is  sliarp;  as,  panther,  or- 
thodox, misanthrope:  except  worthy,  farthing,  brethren, 
and  a  few  others. 

Th,  between  two  vowels,  is  generally  flat  in  words  pure- 
ly English;  as, father,  heathen,  together,  neither,  mother. 

Th,  between  two  vowels,  in  words  from  the  learned 
languages,  is  generally  sharp;  as,  apathy,  sympathy, 
A-thens,  apothecary. 

Th  is  sometimes  pronounced  like  simple  t;  as,  Tho- 
mas, thyme,  Thames,  asthma. 

'•       '  •       u 

C^has  three  sounds,  viz. 

A  long  sound;  as  in  mule,  tube,  cubic. 

A  short  sound ;  as  in  dull,  gull,  custard. 

An  obtuse  sound,  like  oo;  as  in  bull,  full,  bushel. 

The  strangest  deviation  of  this  letter  from  its  natu  -^ 
round,  is  in  the  words  busy,  business,  bury,  and  buri":  ■ 
which  are  pronounced  bizzy,  bizness,  berry,  and  berrirJ. 

»4  is  now  often  used  before  words  beginning  with  i. 
long,  and  an  always  before  those  that  begin  with  ii  short; 
as,  a  union,  a  university,  a  useful  book;  an  uproar,  an 
usher,  an  umbrella. 

The  diphthong  wi,  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  wa;  as 
'm  assuage,  persuade,  antiquary.  It  has  also  the  sound 
if  middle  a;  as  in  guard,  guardian,  guarantee. 

Ue  is  often  sounded  like  we;  as  in  quench,  querist, 

onquest.    It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  w;  as  in  cue, 


S8  ENGLISH  G-RAMMAR. 

hue,  ague.  In  a  few  words,  it  is  pronounced  like  e  short  j 
as  in  ffuest,  guess.  In  some  words  it  is  entirely  sunk;  as 
in  antique,  oblique,  prorogue,  catalogue,  dialo^e,  &c. 

Ui  is  frequently  pronounced  loi;  as  in  languid,  anguish, 
extinguish.  It  lus  sometimes  the  sound  of  i  long;  as  in 
_j>*uide,  guile,  disguise :  and  sometimes  that  of  i  short ;  as 
m  guilt,  guinea,  Guildhall.  In  some  words  it  is  sounded 
like  long  w;  as  in  juice,  suit,  pursuit:  and  after  r,  like 
oo:  as  in  bniise,  fruit,  recruit. 

Uo  is  pronounced  like  wo;  as  in  quote,  quorum,  quon- 
dam. 

Uy  has  the  sound  of  long  e;  as  in  obloquy,  soliloquy: 
pronounced  obloquee,  &c. ;  except  buy,  and  its  derivatives. 

Fhas  the  sound  of  flat/;  and  bears  the  same  relation 
to  it,  as  b  does  to  p,  d  to  f,  hard  g  to  k,  and  z  to  s.     It 
has  also  one  uniform  sound;  as,  vain,  vanitj^,  love. 
W 

W,  when  a  consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound  of  oo  ;  a? 
water  resembles  the  sound  of  ooater;  but  that  it  has  a 
stronger  and  quicker  sound  than  oo,  and  has  a  formation 
essentially  different,  will  appear  to  any  person  who  pro- 
nounces, with  attention,  the  words  wo,  woo,  beware;  and 
who  reflects  that  it  wilt  not  admit  the  article  an  before 
it;  which  oo  would  admit.  In  some  words  it  is  not 
sounded ;  as  in  answer,  sword,  wholesome :  it  is  always 
silent  before  r;  as  in  wrap,  wreck,  wrinkle,  wrist,  wrong, 
wry,  bewray,  &c. 

^before  h  is  pronounced  as  if  it  were  after  the  h;  as, 
why,  hwy ;  when,  hwen ;  what,  hwat. 

jPFis  often  joined  to  o  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  without 
affecting  the  sound  of  that  vowel;  as  m  crow,  blow> 
grow,  know,  row,  flow,  &c. 

When  w  is  a  vowel,  and  is  distinguished  in  the  pro- 
nunciation, it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  u  would 
have  in  the  same  situation ;  as,  draw,  crew,  view,  now, 
sawyer,  vowel,  outlaw. 

X  has  three  sounds,  viz. 

It  is  sounded  like  z  at  the  beginning  of  proper  names 
of  Greek  original ;  as  in  Xanthus,  Xenophon,  Xerxes. 
It  has  a  sharp  sound  like  ks,  when  it  ends  a  syllable 


ORTHOGRAPHY.        ||^  29 

\vith  the  accent  upon  it ;  as,  exit,  exercise,  excellence ; 
or  when  the  accent  is  on  the  next  syllable,  if  it  begins 
with  a  consonant ;  as,  excuse,  extent,  expense. 

It  has,  generally,  a  flat  sound  like  gz,  when  the  ac 
cent  is  not  on  it,  and  the  following  syllable  begins  with 
a  vowel ;  as,  exert,  exist,  example ;  pronounced,  egzert. 
egzist,  egzample. 

F,  when  a  consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound  of  ee ;  as, 
youth,  York,  resemble  the  sounds  of  eeouth,  eeork :  but 
that  this  is  not  its  exact  sound,  will  be  clearly  perceived 
by  pronouncing  the  words  ye,  yes,  new-year,  m  which  its  - 
just  and  proper  sound  is  ascertained.  It  not  only  requires 
a  stronger  exertion  of  the  organs  of  speech  to  pronounce  it. 
than  is  required  to  pronounce  ee;  but  its  formation  is  es- 
sentially different.  It  will  not  admit  of  cm  before  it,  as  ee 
will  in  the  following  example ;  an  eel.  The  opinion  that  y 
and  IV,  when  they  begin  a  word  or  syllable,  take  exactly 
the  sUfind  of  ee  and  oo,  has  induced  some  grammarians  t(* 
assert,  that  these  letters  are  always  vowels  or  diphthongs. 
When  y  is  a  vowel,  it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  .'• 
would  have  in  the  same  situation ;  as,  rhyme,  system, 
justify,  pyramid,  party,  fancy,  hungry. 

JUt 

7i  has  the  sound  of  an  s  uttered  with  a  closer  com- 
pression of  the  palate  by  the  tongue :  it  is  the  flat  s;  as, 
freeze,  frozen,  brazen. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  the  sounds  of  the  let- 
ters  vary,  as  they  are  differently  associated,  and  that  the- 
pronunciation  of  these  associations  depends  upon  the  po- 
sition of  the  accent.  It  may  also  be  observed,  that,  in 
order  to  pronounce  accurately,  great  attention  must  be. 
(>aid  to  tne  vowels  which  are  not  accented.  There  \y 
scarcely  any  thing  which  more  distinguishes  a  person  of 
a  poor  education,  from  a  person  of  a  good  One,  than  the 
pronunciation  of  the  unaccented  vowels.  When  vowels 
are  under  the  accent,  the  best  speakers  and  the  lowest  of 
ihe  people,  with  very  few  exceptions,  pronounce  them 
in  the  same  manner;  but  the  unaccented  vowels  in  the 
mouths  of  the  former,  have  a  distinct,  open,  and  specific 
sound,  while  the  latter  often  totally  sink  them,  or  change 
them  into  some  other  sound. 
C  2 


30  ^       ENGLISH  GRAMMAR* 

Section  3.     The  nature  of  articulation  explained. 

A  CONCISE  account  of  the  origin  and  formation  of  the 
sounds  emitted  by  the  human  voice,  may,  perhaps,  not 
improperly,  be  here  introduced.  It  may  gratify  the  in- 
genious student,  and  serve  to  explain  more  fully  the  na- 
ture of  articulation,  and  the  radical  distinction  between 
vowels  and  consonants. 

Human  voice  is  air  sent  out  from  the  lungs,  and  so  agi- 
tated or  modified  in  its  passage  through  the  windpipe  and 
larynx,  as  to  become  distinctly  audible.  The  windpipe  i^ 
that  tube,  which,  on  touching  the  forepart  of  our  throat 
externally,  we  feel  hard  and  uneven.  It  conveys  air  into 
the  lungs  for  the  purpo-^e  of  breathing  and  speech.  The 
top  or  upper  part  of  tlie  windpipe  is  called  the  larynx, 
consisting  of  four  or  five  cartilages,  that  may  be  expand- 
ed or  brought  together,  by  the  action  of  certain  muscles 
which  operate  all  at  the  same  time.  In  the  middle  of  tiie 
larynx  there  is  a  small  opening,  called  the  glottis,  througl) 
which  the  breath  and  voice  are  conveyed.  This  opening 
is  not  wider  than  one  tenth  of  an  inch ;  and,  therefore, 
the  breath  transmitted  through  it  from  the  lungs,  must 
pass  with  considerable  velocity.  The  voice  thus  foimed, 
IS  strengthened  and  softened  by  a  reverberation  from  the 
palate  and  other  hollow  places  in  the  inside  of  the  mouth 
and  nostrils ;  and  as  these  are  better  or  worse  shaped  for 
this  reverberation,  the  voice  is  said  to  be  more  or  less 
agreeable. 

If  we  consider  the  many  varieties  of  sound,  which  one 
and  tl»e  same  human  voice  is  capable  of  uttering,  together 
with  the  smallness  of  the  diameter  of  the  glottis;  and 
reflect,  that  the  same  diameter  must  always  produce  the 
same  tone,  and,  consequently,  that  to  every  change  of  ■ 
tone  a  correspondent  change  of  diameter  is  necessary ;  we 
must  be  filled  with  admiration  at  the  mechanism  of  these 
parts,  and  the  fineness  of  the  fibres  that  operate  in  pro- 
ducing effects  so  minute,  so  various,  and  in  their  propor- 
tions so  exactly  uniform.  For  it  admits  of  proof,  that  the 
diameter  of  the  human  glottis  is  capable  of  more  than 
sixty  distinct  degrees  of  contraction  or  enlargement,  by 
each  of  which  a  different  note  is  produced;  and  yet  the 


ORTHOGRAPHY*  %  51 

greatest  diameter  of  that  aperture,  as  before  observed, 
does  not  exceed  one  tenth  of  an  inch. 

Speech  is  made  up  of  articulate  voices ;  and  what  we 
call  articulation,  is  performed,  not  by  the  lungs,  windpipe, 
or  larjnx,  but  by  trie  action  of  the  throat,  palate,  teeth, 
tongue,  lips,  and  nostrils.  Articulation  begins  not,  till 
the  breath,  or  voice,  has  passed  through  the  larynx. 

The  simplest  articulate  voices  are  those  which  proceed 
from  an  open  mouth,  and  are  by  giammarians  called 
vowel  sounds.  In  transmitting  these,  the  aperture  of  the 
mouth  may  be  pretty  large,  or  somewhat  smaller,  or  very 
small;  which  is  one  cause  of  the  variety  of  vowels;  a 
particular  sound  being  produced  by  each  particular  aper 
tare.  Moreover,  in  passing  through  an  open  mouth,  the 
voice  may  be  gently  acted  tipon^  by  the  lips,  or  by  the 
tongue  and  palate,  or  by  the  tongue  and  throat ;  whence 
another  source  of  variety  in  vowel  sounds. 

Thus  ten  or  twelve  simple  vowel  sounds  may  be  form- 
ed, agreeably  to  the  plan  in  page  15;  and  the  learners, 
by  observing  the  position  of  their  mouth,  lips,  tongue,  &c. 
when  they  are  uttering  the  sounds,  will  perceive  that 
various  operations  of  these  organs  of  speech,  are  neces- 
sary to  the  production  of  the  different  vowel  sounds ;  and 
that  by  minute  variations  they  may  all  be  distinctly  pro- 
nounced. 

When  the  voice,  in  its  passage  through  the  mouth,  is 
totally  intercepted,  or  strongly  compressed,  there  is  formed 
a  certain  modification  of  articulate  sound,  which,  as  ex- 
pressed by  a  character  in  writing,  is  called  a  consonant. 
Silence  is  the  effect  of  a  total  interception ;  and  indistinct 
sound,  of  a  strong  compression ;  and  therefore  a  conso- 
nant is  not  of  itself  a  distinct  articulate  voice ;  and  its 
influence  in  varying  the  tones  of  language  is  not  clearly 
perceived,  unless  it  be  accompanied  by  an  opening  of 
the  mouth,  that  is,  by  a  vowel. 

By  making  the  experiment  with  attention,  the  student 
will  perceive  that  each  of  the  mutes  is  formed  by  the  voi^^e 
being  intercepted,  by  the  lips,  by  the  tongue  and  palate, 
or  by  the  tongue  and  throat ;  and  that  ,wie  semi-voweh 
are  formed  by  the  same  organs  strongly  compressing  the 
voice  in  its  passage,  but  not  totally  intercepting  it. 

The  elements  of  language,  according  to  the  different 


32  ^  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

seats  where  they  are  formed,  or  tlie  several  organs  oi 
speech  chiefly  concerned  in  their  pronunciation,  are  di 
vided  into  several  classes,  and  denominated  as  follows, 
those  are  called  labials,  which  are  formed  by  the  lips , 
those  dentals,  that  are  formed  with  the  teeth ;  palatals. 
that  are  formed  with  the  palate;  and  nasals,  that  are 
formed  by  the  nose. 

The  importance  of  obtaining,  in  early  life,  a  clear. 
<Ustinct,  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  sounds  of  the 
first  principles  of  language,  and  a  wish  to  lead  young 
minds  to  a  further  consideration  of  a  subject  so  curious 
and  useful,  have  induced  the  compiler  to  bestow  particu- 
lar attention  on  the  preceding  part  of  this  work.  Some 
writers  tliink  that  these  subjects  do  not  properly  consti- 
tute any  parf  of  grammar;  and  consider  them  as  the  ex- 
clusive province  of  the  spelling-book ;  but  if  we  reflect, 
tliat  letters  and  their  sounds  are  the  constituent  principles 
of  that  art,  which  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write  witli 
propriety,  and  that,  in  general,  very  little  knowledge  of 
their  nature  is  acquired  by  the  spelling-book,  we  must 
admit,  that  they  properly  belong  to  gi-ammar;  and  that 
a  rational  consideration  of  these  elementary  principles  of 
language  is  an  object  that  demands  the  attention  of  the 
young  grammarian.  The  sentiments  of  a  very  judicious 
and  eminent  writer  (Quinctilian)  respecting  this  part  of 
grammar,  may,  perhaps,  be  properly  introduced  on  the 
present  occasion. 

<^'Let  no  person  despise,  as  inconsiderable,  the  elements 
f>f  grammar,  because  it  may  seem  to  ihem  a  matter  of 
small  consequence,  to  show  the  distinction  between  vowels 
and  consonants,  and  to  divide  the  latter  into  liquids  and 
mutes.  But  they  -vvho  penetrate  into  the  innermost  parts 
of  this  temple  of  science,  will  there  discover  such  refine 
ment  a:nd  subtil ity  of  matter,  as  are  not  only  proper  it 
sharpen  the  uikIei s,tandings  of  young  persons,  but  suffi- 
cient to  ^ive  e .zeroise  for  the  most  profound  knowledge 
and  eruditiun.' 

The  elemei; '.vy  sounds,  under  their  smallest  combi- 
nation, produce  a  syllable  ;  syllables  properly  combined 
produce  a  i-'^Ki;  x.ords  duly  combined  produce  a  se7i- 
tence;  and  s^^atences  properly  combined  produce  an 'd/«- 
tion  or  discourse.  Thus  it  is,  says  Harris,  in  his  Hermes, 


:;;^^ 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  S3 

that  to  principles  apparently  so  trivial  as  a  few  plain  ele- 
mentary sounds,  we  owe  that  variety  of  articulate  voices, 
which  has  been  sufficient  to  explain  the  sentiments  of  so 
innumerable  a  multitude,  as  all  the  present  and  past  ge- 
nerations of  men. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Of  Syllables^  and  the  rules  for  arranging  them. 

A  SYLLABLE  is  a  sound,  either  simple  or  compound- 
ed, pronounced  by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice,  and 
constituting  a  word,  or  part  of  a  word:  as,  a,  an,  ant- 
Spelling  is  the  art  of  rightly  dividing  words  into 
their  syllables,  or  of  expressing  a  word  by  its  proper 
letters. 

The  following  are  the  general  mles  for  the  division  of 
words  into  syllables. 

1.  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels,  must  be 
joined  to  the  latter  syllable :  as,  de -light,  bri-dal,  re- 
source: except  the  letter  x;  as,  ex-ist,  ex-amine:  antl 
except  likewise  words  compounded ;  as,  up-on,  un-evei>. 
dis-ease* 

2.  Two  consonants  proper  to  begin  a  word,  must  not 
be  separated;  as,  fa-ble,  sti-fle.  But  when  they  come 
between  two  vowels,  and  are  such  as  cannot  begin  a 
word,  they  must  be  divided ;  as,  ut-most,  un-der,  in-sect, 
er-i-or,  cof-fin. 

3.  When  tliree  consonants  meet  in  the  middle  of  a 
^vord,  if  they  can  begin  a  word,  and  the  preceding  vowel 
be  pronounced  long,  they  are  not  to  be  separated;  as, 
de -throne,  de-stroy.  But  when  the  vowel  of  the  pre- 
ceding syllable  is  pronounced  short,  one  of  the  consonants 
always  belongs  to  that  syllable;  as,  dis-tract,  dis-prove, 
dis -train. 

4.  When  three  or  four  consonants,  which  are  not  proper 
to  begin  a  syllable,  meet  between  two  vowels,  such  of  them 
as  can  begin  a  syllable  belong  to  the  latter,  the  rest  to 
tlie  former  syllable:  as,  ab-stain,  com-plete,  em-broil, 
dan-dler,  dap-ple,  con-strain,  hand-some,  parch-ment. 

5.  Two  vowels,  not  being  a  diphthong,  must  be  divided 
into  separate  syllables  j  as,  cru-el,  de-ni-al,  so-ci-e-ty, 


>^4  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

6.  Compountlcd  words  must  be  traced  into  the  sim| 
words  of  which  they  are  composed ;  as,  ice-house,  glow- 
worm, o\'cr-powor,  never-the-less.  ♦  < 

7.  Grammatical,  and  other  particular  terminations,  are 
generally  separated :  as,  teach-est,  teach-eth,  teach-in»> 
teach-cr,  contend-est,  great-er,  wretch-ed'j  good-ness, 
free-dom,  false-hood. 

The  rules  for  dividing  words  into  syllables,  with  the 
reasons  in  support  of  them,  are  expressed  at  large  in  th*^ 
riuthor'sFinglish  Spelling-book,  ThirteenlK  or  any  sub"-* 
epient,  edition,  page  210 — 215. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Of  WORDS  in  general,  and  the  rules /or  spelling  them. 

Words  are  articulate  sounds,  used  by  common  con- 
sent, as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  termed  a  Monosyllable; 
a  word  of  two  syllables,  a  Dyssyllable  ;  a  word  of 
ihree  syllables,  a  Trisyllable  ;  and  a  word  of  four  or 
?n()re  syllable;*,  a  Polysyllable. 

All  words  are  either  primitive  or  derivative. 

A  primitive  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  reduced 
to  any  simpler  word  in  the  language:  as,  man,  good, 
content. 

A  derivative  word  is  that  which  may  be  reduced 
to  another  word  in  English  of  greater  simplicity  :  as^ 
inanful,  goodness,  contentment,  Yorkshire.* 

There  are  many  English  words  which,  though  com 
pounds  in  other  languages,  are  to  us  primitives :  thus,  ci 
cumsnect,  circttmvent,  circumstance,   delude,  concav* 
complicate,  &c.  primitive  words  in  English;  will  be  found 
derivatives,  when  traced  in  the  Latin  tongue. 

The  orthography  of  the  English  Language  is  attended 
with  much  uncertainty  and  perplexity.    But  a  consider;* 
ble  part  of  this  inconvenience  may  be  remedied,  by  u ; 
tendmg  to  the  general  laws  of  formation;   and,  for  tin 

'  A  compound  word  is  included  under  the  head  of  derivative  words?': 
penknife,  teacup,  looking-glass;  may  be  reduced  to  other  words  of  greai- ' 
plicity. 


# 


ORTHOGKAPHY. 

end,  the  learner  is  presented %ith  a  view  of  such  gene- 
niaxims  in  spelling  primitive  tnd  derivative  Avords,  as 
e  been  ahnost  universally  received. 

RULE    I. 

Monosyllables  ending  with  /,  /,  or  s,  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant:   as,  staff",  mill., 
pass,  &c.    The  only  exceptions  are,  of,  if,  as,  is,  has,  was, 
.  his,  this,  us,  and  thus. 

RULE    II. 

Monosyllables  ending  with  any  consonant  but/,  /,or  y, 
and  preceded  b)'  a  single  vowel,  never  double  the  final 
consonant ;  exc«|)ting  add,  ebb,  butt,  egg,  odd,  err,  inn, 
-bunn,  purr,  and  bizz. 

RULE  ill. 

Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  form 
tlie  plurals  of  nouns,  the  persons  of  verbs,  verbal  nouns^ 
past  participles,  comparatives,  and  suji>erlatives,  by  chang- 
ing y  into  i.*  as,  spy,  spies;  I  carry,  thou  earnest;  he 
carrieth,  or  carries;  carrier,  carried;  happy,  happier^ 
happiest.  '^ 

1  he  present  participle  ti  ing,  retains  the  y,  that  i  may 
not  be  doubled;  as,  carry, carrying;  burj,  burying, &c. 

But  y,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  in  such  instances  as  the 
above,  is  not  changed  ;  as,  lx>y,  boys :  I  cloy,  he  cloys, 
cloyed,  &c. ;  except  in  lay,  pay,  and  say;  from  which 
are  formed,  laid,  paid,  and  said;  and  their  compounds, 
unlaid,  unpaid,  unsaid,  &c. 

RULE  IV. 

Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  upon 
assuming  an  additional  syllable  be^nning  with  a  conso- 
nant, commonly  change  y  into  i ;  as,  happy,  happily,  hap- 
piness. But  when  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  very 
rarely  changed  in  the  additional  syllable;  as,  coy,  coyly; 
boy,  boyish,  boyhood ;  annoy,  annoyer,  annoyance ;  joy, 
joyless,  joyful. 

RULE    v.  '  -\ 

Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable^J^^^ 
ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
double  that  consonant,  when  they  take  another  sellable 
beginning  with  a  vowel :   as,  wit,  witty ;  thin,  thmiush; 
to  abet,  an  abbettor ;  to  begin,  a  beginner. 


iU  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

But  if  a  diphthong  precedes,  or  the  accent  is  on  the 
preceding  syllable,  the  consonant  remains  single:  as,  to 
toil,  toiling ;  to  offer,  an  offering ;  maid,  maiden,  &c.     * 

RULE     VI. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  but  /,  and  taking 
ness,  less,  ly,  or  ful,  after  them,  preserve  the  letter  double ; 
as,  harmlessness,  carelessness,  carelessly,  stiffly,  success- 
ful, distressful,  &c.  But  those  words  which  end  with 
double  /,  and  take  ness,  less,  ly,  or ful,  after  them,  gene- 
rally omit  one  /;  as,  fulness,  skill  ess,  fully,  skilful,  ^&c. 

RULE    VII. 

Ness,  less,  ly,  and  ful,  added  to  words  ending  with  si- 
lent e,  do  not  cut  it  off:  as,  paleness,  ^ileless,  closely, 
peaceful;  except  in  a  few  words;  as,  'July,  truly,  awful. 

RULE  VIII. 

Mcnt,  added  to  words  ending  wit)i  silent  e,  generally 
preserves  the  e  from  elision ;  as,  abatement,  chastisement 
incitement,  &c.  The  words  judgment,  abridgment,  a( 
kuowledgment,  are  deviations  from  the  rule. 
„  Like  other  terminations,  7nent  changes  y  into  i,  when 
preceded  by  a  consonant ;  as,  accompany,  accompani- 
ment; merry,  merriment. 

RULE  /X. 

^ble  and  ible,  when  incorporated  into  words  ending 
with  silfent  e,  almost  always  cut  it  off:  as,  blame,  blam  - 
able;  cure,  curable;  sens^  sensible,  &c.:  but  if  c  or 
g  soft  comes  before  e  in  the  original  word,  the  e  is  then 
preserved  in  words  compounded  with  able;  as,  change, 
changeable;   peace,  peiceable,  &c. 

RULE    X. 

When  ing  or  ish  is  added  to  words  ending  with  silent 
e,  the  e  is  almt^t  unH^ersally  omitted:  as,  place, placing ; 
lodge,  lodging;  slave,  slavish;  prude,  prudish. 

RULE    XI* 

Words  taken  into  composition,  often  drop  those  letters 
which  were  superfluous  in  the  simple  words:  as,  handfiil, 
dunehil,  wdthal,  also,  chilblain,  foretel. 

The  orthography  of  a  great  number  of  English  wordt^ 
is  far  from  being  uniform,  even  amongst  writers  of  dis- 
tinction. Thus,  honour  and  honor,  inquire  and  enquire^ 
negotiate  and  negociate,  control  and  controul,  es^ense  and 
expence,  allege  3ind  alledge,  surprise  and  surprize,  comji^c 


OIlTftaGRAl>HY,  Sf 

^m\  compiecU,  connexion  Sind  connection,  abridgment  and 
abridgement,  and  many  other  orthographical. variations, 
are  to  be  n;et  with  in  the  best  modern  publications. 
Some  authority  for  deciding  differences  of  this  nature, 
appears  to  be  necessary :  and  where  can  we  find  one  of 
•equal  pretensions  with  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary?  though 
a  few  of  his  decisions  do  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by 
the  principles  of  etymology  and  analogy,  the  stable  foun- 
dations ot  his  improvements.-:— "As  the  weight  of  trutii 
and  reason  (says  Nares  in  his  "Elements  of  Orthoepy") 
is  irresistible,  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary  has  nearly  nxed 
the  external  form  of  our  language.  Indeed,  so  conve- 
nient is  it  to  have  one  acknowledj^ed  standard  to  recur  to; 
so  much  preferable,  in  matters  ot  (his  nature,  is  a  trifling 
degree  of  irregularity,  to  a  continual  chano-e,  and  fruit- 
less pursuit  of  unattainable  perfection ;  that  it  is  earnestly 
to  be  hoped,  that  no  author  will  henceforth,  on  light 
grounds,  be  tempted  to  innovate." 

This  Dictionary,  however,  contains  some  orthographi- 
cal inconsistencies,  which  ought  to  be  rectified :  such  as, 
immovable  moveable^  chastely  chastncss.  fertileness  fcrtily, 
sliness  slyly,  fearlessly  ^earlesness,  needlessness  needlesly. 
If  these,  and  similar  irregularities,  were  corrected  by 
spelling  the  words  analogically,  according  to  the  first 
word  in  each  part  of  the  series,  and  agreeably  to  the  ge- 
neral rules  of  spelling,  the  Dictionary  would  dou])(less,  in 
these  respects,  be  improved. 


D 


PART  11. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

»^2  General  View  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

The  second  part  of  grammar  is  etymology,  which 
treats  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  their  various 
modifications,  and  their  derivation. 

There. are,  in  English,  nine  sorts  of  words,  or,  as 
they  are  commonly  called,  parts  of  speech;  namely, 
the  ARTICLE,  the  substantive  or  noun,  the  adjec- 
tive, the  pronoun,  the  verb,  the  adverb,  the  pre- 
position, the  conjunction,  and  the  interjection. 

1.  An  article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  substantives,  to 
point  them  out,  and  to  show  how  far  their  signification 
extends  :  as,  a  garden,  an  eagle,  the  woman. 

2.  A  Substantive  or  noun  is  the  name  of  any  thing 
that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  notion:  as,  Lon- 
don, man,  virtue. 

A  Substantive  may,  in  general,  be  distinguished  by  its 
taking  an  article  before  it,  or  by  its  making  sense  of 
itself:  as,  a  book,  the  sun,  an  apple;  temperance,  indus- 
try^ chastity. 

3.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  substanti\^, 
to  express  its  quality  :  as,  '>An  industrious  man;  a 
virtuous  woman. " 

An  Adjectiv^  may  be  known  by  its  making  sense  with 
the  addition  of  the  word  thing:  as,  a  good  tiling;  a  bad 
thing:  or  of  any  particular  substantive ;  as,  a  sweet  apple, 
a  pleasant  prospect,  a  lively  boy. 

4.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  to 
avoid  the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  word: 
as;^  ^ -The  man  is  nappy  ;  he  is  benevolent ;  ke  is  use- 
ful.'^ 


ETYMOLOGY-  39 

5.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  signified  to  be,  to  do, 
or- to  suffer:   as,  "lam;   I  rule;  I  dm  ruled. ^' 

A  Verb  may  generally  be  distinguished,  by  its  making 
sense  with  any  of  the  personal  pronouns,  or  the  word  to 
before  it:  as,  I  toalk,  hep/ays,  they  write;  or,  to  ivalk, 
to  ptay,  to  write. 

6.  An  Adverb  is  a  part  of  speech  joined  to  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  and  sometimes  to  another  adverb,  to 
express  some  quality  or  circumstance  respecting  it: 
as,  *'He  reads  ivell;  a  tndy  good  man;  he  writes  ver*/ 
correctly. " 

An  Adverb  may  be  generally  known,  by  its  answering 
to  the  question.  How?  how  much?  when?  or  where?  as, 
in  the  phrase  "He  reads  correctly, ^^  the  answer  to  the 
question,  How  does  h%  read  ?  is,  correctly. 

7.  Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with  one 
another,  and  to  show  the  relation  between  them:  as, 
"He  went  from  London  to  York;"  "she  is  above  dis- 
guise;" "they  are  supported  by  industry." 

A  preposition  may  be  known  by  its  admitting  after  it  a 
personal  pronoun,  in  the  objective  case;  ?is,  with,  for,  to, 
&c.  will  allow  the  objective  case  after  them ;  with  him, 
for  her,  to  them,  &c. 

8.  A  Conjunction  is  a  part  of  speech  that  is  chiefly 
used  to  connect  sentences;  so  as,  out  of  two  or  more 
sentences,  to  make  but  one:  it  sometimes  connects 
only  words:  as,  "Thou  and  he  are  happy,  because 
you  are  good."     'fTwo  and  three  are  five. " 

9.  Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  passions  or  emotions 
of  the  speaker:  as,  "O  virtue!  how  amiable  thou  art"> 

The  observations  which  have  been  made,  to  aid  learn 
IS  in  distinguishing  the  parts  of  speech  from  one  another, 
may  afford  them  some  small  assistance ;  but  it  will  cer- 
tainly be  much  more  instructive,  to  distinguish  them  by 
the  definitions,  and  an  accurate  knowledge  of  their  na- 
ture. 

In  the  following  passage,  all  the  parts  of  speech  are 
f.emplified: 


40  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

1         2        7        Q       5  I       Q  3        7     2' 

The  power  of  speech  is  a  feculty  peculiar  to  man^ 

85  5  7474         3  2         7 

and  vf&s  bestowed  on  him  by  his  beneficent  Creator,  for 

1.         3         86  32         8966 

file  greatest  and  most  excellent  uses;  but  alas !  how  often 

5    4        5        4  7    1       3       7         2- 
do  we  pervert  it  to  tlie  worst  of  purposes ! 

In  the  foregoing  sentence,  the  words  the,  o,  are  articles; 
j)07.vei\  speech,  faadty,  man,  Creator,  uses,  purposes,  arc 
auhsiantives;  pecidiar,benefice7it,  greatest,  excellent,  worst, 
are  adjectives;  him,  his,  we,  it,  are  pronouns;  is,  ivas, 
bestowed,  do, pervert,  are  verbs;  most^  how,  often,  are  ad- 
verbs; of,  to,  on,  by,  for,  are  prepositions;  and,  but,  are 
co^unctions;  and  ala^  is  an  interjection. 

The  number  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  or  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  has  been  variously  reckoned  by  different 
grammarians.  Some  have  enumerated  ten,  making  the 
participle  a  distinct  part;  some  eight,  excluding  the  par- 
ticiple, and  ranking  the  adjective  under  the  noun;  some 
four,  and  others  only  two,  (the  noun  and  the  verb,)  sup- 
])osing  the  i*est  to  be  contained  in  the  parts  of  their  divi- 
sion. We  have  followed  those  authors,  who  appear  to 
have  given  tiiem  the  most  natural  and  intelligible  distri- 
bution. Some  remarks  on  the  division  made  by  the 
learned  Home  Tooke,  are  contained  In  the  first  section 
of  the  eleventh  chapter  of  etymology. 

The  interjection,  indeed,  seems  scarcely  worthy  of  be- 
in^  considered  as  a  part  of  artificial  language  or  speech, 
being  rather  a  branch  of  that  natural^language,  which  we 
possess  in  common  with  the  brute  creation,^  and  by  which 
we  express  the  sudden  emotions  and  passions  that  actuate 
ou-r  frame.  But,  as  it  is  used  in  written  as  well  as  oral 
language,  it  may,  in  some  measure,  be  deemed  a  part  of 
speech.  It  is  with  us  a  virtual  sentence,  in  which  the 
noun  and  verb  are  concealed  under  an  imperfect  or  indi- 
gested word. — See  this  Chapter,  in  ^Ae  Octavo  Gram.mar* 

CHAPTER  n. 

Cf  The  Articles. 
Ah  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  substantives*  tc 


ETYMOLOGY.  il 

point  thetti  out,  and  to  show  how  far  their  significa- 
tion extencfs;  as,  «  garden,  an  eagle,  the  woman. 

In  English,  th^re  are  but  two  articles,  a  and  the:  a 
becomes  cm  before  a  vowel,*  and  before  a  silent  A,*  as, 
«n  acorn,  nn  hour.  But  if  the  h  be  sounded,  the  a 
only  is  to  be  used;    as,  a  hand,  a  heart,  a  highway.    ..^ 

•^ 

The  inattention  of  writers  and  printers  to  this  neceSsai'V 

distinction,  has  occasioned  tlie  frequent  use  of  «w  before  //. 
when  it  is  to  be  pronounced ;  and  this  circumstance,  more 
than  any  other,  has  probably  contributed  to  that  indistinct 
utterance,  or  total  omission,  of  the  sound  signified  by  thi? 
letter,  which  very  often  occurs  amongst  readers  and 
speakers.  Jin  horse,  an  husband,  an  herald,  an  heathen, 
and  many  similar  aSvSociations,  are  frequently  to  be  found 
in  works  of  taste  and  merit.  To  remedy  this  evil,  read- 
ers should  be  taught  to  omit,  in  all  similar  cases,  the  sound 
of  the  n,  and  give  the  h  its  full  pronunciation. 

Jl  or  an  is  styled  the  indefinite  article:  it  is  used  in 
a  vague  sense,  to  point  out  one  single  thing  of  the 
kind,  in  other  respects  indeterminate:  as,  "Give  me 
«book;"   "Bring  me  ^rn  apple."  ^ 

The  is  called  the  definite  article;  because  it  ascer- 
tains what  particular  thing  or  things  are  meant:  as, 
"Give  me  the  book;*'  "Bring  me  //?e  apples;''  mean 
ing  some  book,  or  apples,  referred  to. 

A  substantive  without  any  article  to  limit  it,  Is 
generally  taken  in  its  widest  sense:  as,  "A,  candid 
temper  is  proper  for  man;"  that  is,  for  all  mankind.." 

The  peculiar  use  and  importance  of  the  articles  will 
be  seen  in  the  following  examples ;  "The  son  of  a  king — 
the  son  of  the  king — a  son  of  the  king."  Each  of  these 
three  phrases  has  an  entirely  diiferent  meaning,  through 
the  different  application  of  the  articles  a  and  the. 

^'Thou  art  a  man,"  is  a  very  general  and  harmless  po- 
sition J  l3ut,  "Thou  art  YAe  man,"  ^as  Nathan  said  to 
David,)  is  an  assertion  capable  of  striking  terror  and  re- 
morse mto  tlie  heart. 

*  A  instead  of  an  is  now  used  before  words  bcgjnniog'.witb.«  Icflg.   BRpi^se- 
|«net<{7.    It  is  also  u»ed  before  *»w;  osi-Kawiyaene.  »  ^ 

Da. 


42  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR* 

The  article  is  omitted  before  nouns  that  imply  fhe  dif* 
ferent  virtues,  vices,  passions,  qualities,  sciences,  arts, 
metals,  herbs,  &c.;  as,  "prudence  is  commendable;  false- 
hood is  odious;  anger  ought  to  be  avoided;"  &c.  It  is 
not  prefixed  to  a  proper  name;  as,  "Alexander,"  (because 
that  of  itself  denotes  a  determinate  individual  or  particu- 
fer  thing, )  except  fiir  tlie  sake  of  distinguishing  a  particu- 
lar family:  as,  "He  is  a  Howard,  or  of  the  family  of  the 
Howards ;"  or  by  way  of  eminence :  as,  "Every  man  is 
not  a  Newton ;"  "He  has  tlie  courage  of  an  Achilles :" 
or  when  some  noun  is  understood;  ''He  sailed  down  the 
(river)  Thames,  in  the  (ship)  Britannia." 
*^  When  an  adjective  is  used  with  the  noun  to  which  the 
article  relates,  it  is  placed  between  the  article  and  the 
noun;  as,  "a  good  man,"  "an  agreeable  woman,"  "the 
best  friend."  On  some  occasions,  however,  the  adjective 
precedes  a  or  an;  as,  ''such  a  shame,"  "as  great  a  man 
as  Alexander,"  "too  careless  an  author." 

The  indefinite  article  can  be  joined  to  substantives  in 
the  singular  number  only;  the  definite  article  may  be 
joined  also  to  plurals. 

But  there  appears  to  be  a  remarkable  exception  to  this 
rule,  in  the  .use  of  tlie  adjectives  few  and  many,  (the  lat- 
ter chiefly  with  the  word  great  before  it,)  whi^h,  though 
joined  with  plural  substantives,  yet  admit  of  the  singular 
articles;  as,  «/ez^7  men;  a  great  many  ^n^w.    . 

The  reason  or  it  is  manifest,  from  the  effect  which  the 
article  has  in  these  phrases  ;  it  means  a  small  or  great 
/lumber  collectively  taken,  and  therefore  gives  the  idea, 
^f  a  whole,  that  is,  of  unity.  Thus  likewise,  a  dozen,  a 
score,  a  hundred,  or  a  thousand,  is  one  whole  number, 
an  aggregate  of  many  collectively  taken ;  and  therefore* 
still  retains  the  article  «,  though  joined  as  an  adjective 
to  a  plural  substantive;  as,  a  hundred  years,  &c. 

The  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  placed  between  the 
adjective  many,  and  a  singular  noun:  as, 

"Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 
"The  dark  unfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear 

"Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
"And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." 

la  these  lines-,  the  phrases,  rnmy  a  gem  .and  many  9r 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  4S 

flower  refer  to  many  gems  and  manyflowerSy  separately* 
not  collectively  considered. 

The  definite  article  the  is  frequently  applied  to  adverlJs 
in  the  comparative  and  superlative  degree ;  and  its  effect 
is,  to  mark  the  degree  the  more  strongly,  and  to  define 
it  the  more  precisely:  as,  ^'The  more  I  examine  it,  the 
better  I  like  it.  I  like  this  the  least  of  any."  See  ti^ 
Chapter,  in  the  Octavo  Grammar. 


CHAPTER  III. 

OF     SUBSTANTIVES. 

Section-  1.     Of  Substantives  in  GeneraL 

•  A  Substantive  or  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  thing 
that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  notion:  as,  Lon- 
don,  man,  virtue. 

Substantives  are  either  proper  or  common. 

Proper  names  or  substantives,  are  the  names  appro- 
priated to  individuals:  as,  George,  Lor.don,  Thames. 

Common  names  or  substantives,  stand  for  kinds 
containing  many  sorts,  or  for  sorts  containing  many 
individuals  under  them;  as,  animal,  man,  tree,  &c. 

When  proper  names  have  an  article  annexed  to 
them,  they  are  used  as  common  names:  as,  '*He  i>? 
the  Cicero  of  his  age;  he  is  reading  the  lives  of  the 
Twelve  Caesars. 

Common  names  may  also  be  used  to  signify  indivi- 
duals, by  the  addition  of  articles  or  pronouns:  as, 
'^The  boy  is  studious;   that  girl  is  discreet."* 

To  substantives  belong  gender,  number,  and  case: 
and  they  are  all  of  the  third  person  when  spoken  of, 
and  of  the  second  when  spoken  to:  as,  **Blessings 
attend  us  on  every  side;  be  grateful,  children  of  men  P' 
that  is,  ye  children  of  men. 

♦Nouns  may  also  be  divided  into  the  following  classes :  Collective  noons,  or 
nouns  of  multitude ;  as.  the  people,  the  parliament,  the  army :  Abstratt  nouns* 
or  the  names  of  qualities  abstracted  from  their^^ubstances ;  as,  knowledge* 
goodness,  whiteaess;   veriai  or  pariicipial  nouns;    ast  beginiUiig,  readfn^. 


44  ENGLISH  ©HAMMAR. 


Section  2.     Of  Gender. 

CrENDER  is  the  distinction  of  nouns, with  regard  to 
sex.  There  are  three  genders,  the  masculine,  the 
FEMININE,  and  the  neuter. 

^*i^he  Masculine  Gender  denotes  animals  of  the  male 
kiTid:  as,  a  man,  a  horse,  a  bull. 

The  Feminine  Gender  signifies  animals  of  the  fe- 
male kind:  as,  a  woman,  a  duck,  a  hen.. 

The  Neuter  Gender  denotes  objects  which  are  nei- 
ther males  nor  females:  as,  a  field,  a  house,  a  garden. 

Some  substantives,  naturally  neuter,  are,  by  a  figure 
of  speech,  converted  into  the  ipasculine  or  feminine 
gender:  as,  when  we  say  of  the  sun,  he  is  setting; 
and  of  a  ship,  she  sails  welL/ 

Figuratively,  in  the  English  tongue,  we  commonl}^  give 
ihe  maculine  gender  to  nouns  which  are  conspicuous  for 
the  attributes  of  imparting  or  communicating,  and  which 
are  by  nature  strong  and  efficacious.  Those,  again,  are 
made  feminine,  which  are  conspicuous  for  the  attributes 
of  containing  or  bringing  forth,  or  which  are  peculiarly 
beautiful  or  amiable.  Upon  these  principles,  the  sun  is 
said  to  be  masculine;  and  the  moon,  being  the  receptacle 
of  the  sun's  light,  to  be  feminine.  The  earth  is  generally 
feminine.  A  ship,  a  country,  a  city,  &c.  are  likewise 
made  feminine,  being  receivers  or  containers.  Time  is 
always  masculine,  on  account  of  its  mighty  efficacy.  Vir- 
tue is  feminine  from  its  beauty,  and  its  being  the  object 
of  love.  Fortune  and  the  church  are  generally  put  in 
the  feminine  gender./ 


The  English  language  has  three  methods  of  distinguish- 
ing the  sex,  viz. 

1.  By  different  words:  as, 

Female. 

Wife. 

Queen. 

Lady. 
Wowanv 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Bachelor. 

Maid. 

Htisband, 

Boar. 

Sow.  . 

S- 

Boy. 

Girl. 

Brotlier. 

Sister. 

Lord. 

Buck. 

Doe. 

Man. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

4t 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Bull. 

Cow. 

Master. 

Mistress. 

Bullock  0) 
Steer.       ' 

i*  Heifer. 

Milter. 
Nephew. 

Spawner 

Niece. 

Cock. 

Hen. 

Ram. 

Ewe. 

Dog. 
Drake. 

Bitch. 
Duck. 

Singer. 

C  Songstress  or 
I  Singer. 

Earl. 

Countess. 

Sloven. 

Slut. 

Father. 

Mother. 

Son. 

Daughter. 
Hind. 

Friar. 

Nun. 

Stag. 

Gander. 

Goose. 

Uncle. 

Aunt. 

Hart. 

Roe. 

Wizai'd. 

Witch. 

Horse. 

Mare. ' 

^ 

2.  By  a  difference  of  termination :  as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Abbot. 

Abbess. 

Landgrave. 

Actor. 

Actress. 

Lion. 

Administrator 

.  Administratrix.Marquis. 

Adulterer. 

Adultress. 

Master. 

Ambassador. 

Ambassadress 

.  Mayor. 

Arbiter. 

Arbitress. 

Patron. 

Baron. 

Baroness. 

Peer. 

Bridegroom. 

Bride. 

Poet. 

Benefactor. 

Benefactress. 

Priest. 

Caterer. 

Cateress. 

Prince. 

Chanter. 

Chan  tress. 

Prior. 

Conductor. 

Conductress. 

Prophet. 

Count. 

Countess. 

Protector.  , 

Deacon. 

Deaconess. 

Shepherd. 

Duke. 

Ducliess. 

Songster. 

Elector. 

Electress. 

Sorcerer. 

Emperor. 
Enchanter. 

Empress. 
Enchantress. 

Sultan.      '; 

Executor. 

Executrix. 

Tiger. 

Governor. 

Governess. 

Traitor. 

Heir. 

Heiress. 

Tutor. 

Hero. 

Heroine. 

Viscount 

Hunter. 

Huntress. 

Votary. 

Host. 

Hostess. 

Widower.v 

Jew. 

Jewess. 

"•' 

Female. 
Landgravine. 
Liimess. 
Marchioness. 
Mistress. 
Mayoress. 
Patroness. 
Peeress. 
Poetess. 
Priestess.     ' 
Princess. 
Prioress. 
Prophetess, 
Protectress. 
Shepherdess. 
Songstress. 
Sorceress. 
Sultaness. 
Sultana. 
Tigress. 
Traitress.    ' 
Tutoress. 
Viscountess. 
Votaress. 
Widow 


46  eNGttSI^  OBAMMAR. 

5.  Bj,ajiotm,  pronoun,  or  adjective,  being  prefixed iii 
the  subiatantive :  as, 

A  cock-sparrow.  A  hen-sparrow, 

A  man-servant.  A  maid-servant. 

A  he -goat.  A  she -goat 

A  he-bear.  A  she-bear. 

A  male  child.  A  female  child. 

Male  descendants.  Female  descendants. 

It  sometimes  happens,  that  the  same  noun  is  either  mas- 
culine or  feminine.  The  words,  parent,  child,  cousin, 
friend,  neighbour,  servant,  and  several  others,  are  used 
indifferently  for  males  or  females.  ^  ' 

Nouns  with  variable  terminations  contribute  to  conciscr 
ness  and  perspicuity  of  expression.  We  have  only  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  them  to  make  us  feel  our  want;  for  when 
we  say  of  a  woman,  she  is  a  philosopher,  an  astronomer,  a 
builder,  a  weaver,  we  perceive  an  impropriety  in  the  ter- 
mination, which  we  cannot  avoid ;  but  we  can  say,  th^t 
she  is  a  botanist,  a  student,  a  witness,  a  scholar,  an  or- 
phan, a  companion,  because  these  terminations  have  not 
annexed  to  tliem  the  notion  of  sex. 

Section  3.     Of  Number. 

* 

*  Number  is  the  consideration  of  an  object,  as  one 
or  more. 

Substantives  are  of  two  numbers,  the  singular  and 
the  plural. 

The  singular  number  expresses  but  one  object;  as, 
a  chair,  a  table.  : 

The  plural  number  signifies  more  objects  than  one; 
as,  chairs,  tables. 

Some  nouns,  from  the  nature  of  the  things  which 
they  express,  are  used  only  in  the  singular  form;  as, 
wheat,  pitch,  gold,  sloth,  pride,  &c.;  others,  only  in  the 
plural  form;  as,  bellows,  scissors,  lungs,  riches,  &c. 

Some  words  are  the  same  in  both  numbers;  as, 
deer,  sheep,  swine,  &c. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  generally  formed  by 
adding  s  to  thie  singular:  as,  dove,  dores;  face,  faees; 


EXYMOLOOY.  47 

thought,  thoughts.  But  when  the  substantive  singu- 
lar ends  in  x,  en  soft,  sh,  ss,  or  s,  we  acid  es  in  the  plural: 
as,  box,  boxes;  church,  churches;  lash,  lashes;  kiss, 
kisses;  rebus,  rebusses.  If  the  singular  ends  in  ch 
hard,  the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  s;  as,  monarchy 
monarchs;  distich,  distich s^^ 

Nouns  which  end  in  o,  have  sometimes  es,  added  to  the 
plural ;  as,  cargo,  /echo,  hero,  negro,  manifesto,  potato, 
volcano,  wo:  and  sometimes  only  s,*  as,  folio,  nuncio, 
punctiUo,  seraglio. 

Nouns  ending  in  /,  or  /e,  are  rendered  plural  by  the 
change  of  those  terminations  into  ves:  as,  loaf,  loaves; 
half,  halves;  wife,  wives:  except  grief,  relief,  reproof, 
and  several  others,  which  form  the  plural  by  the  addition 
of  5.  Those  which  end  in  ^  have  the  regular  plural : 
as,  ruff,  ruffs;  except,  staff,  staves. 

Nouns  which  have  y  in  the  singular,  with  no  other  vowel 
in  the  same  syllable,  change  it  into  ies  in  the  plural :  as, 
beauty,  beauties ;  fly,  flies.  But  the  y  is  not  changed, 
when  there  is  another  vowel  in  the  sjllabTe :  as,  key,  keys; 
delay,  delays ;  attorney,  attorneys. 

Some  nouns  become  plural  by  changing  the  a  of  the 
singular  into  e:  as,  man,  men;  woman,  women ;  alder- 
man, aldermen.  The  words,  ox  and  cliild,  form  oxen  and 
children;  brother,  makes  either  brothers,  or  brethren. 
Sometimes  the  diphthong  oo  is  changed  into  ee  in  the 
plural:  as, foot, feet ;  goose,  geese;  tootli, teeth.  Louse 
and  mouse  make  lice  and  mice.  Penny  makes  peftce,  or 
pennies,  wh^n  the  coin  is  m^ant:  die,  dice  (for  pla^;) 
tiie,  dies  (for  coining.) 

It  is  agreeable  to  analogy,  and  the  practice  of  the  gene- 
rality of  correct  writers,  to  construe  the  following  words 
as  plural  nouns;  pains,  riches,  alms:  and  also,  mathe- 
matics, metaphysics,  politics,  ethics,  optics,  pneumatics^ 
with  other  similar  names  of  sciences. 

Dr.  Johnson  says  that  the  adjective  much  is  sometimes 
a  term  of  number,  as  well  as  of  quantity.  This  may  ac- 
count for  the  instances  we  meet'  with  of  its  associating 
^ith  pains  as  a  plural  noun:  as,  "much  pains."  The 
connexion,  however,  is  not  to  be  recommended. 


48 


EKOUSH  GRAMMAR. 


The  word  news  is  now  almost  universally  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  singular  number. 

The  noun  means  is  used  both  in  the  singular  and  the 
plural  number. 

The  following  words,  which  have  been  adopted  from 
the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  are  thus  dis- 
tinguised,  with  respect  to  number. 


Singular. 

Plural, 

Singulai-. 

Plural. 

Cherub. 

Cherubim. 

Datum. 

Data. 

Seraph. 

Seraphim. 

Effluvium. 

Effluvia. 

Antithesis. 

Antitheses. 

Encomium. 

C  Encomia  or 
I  Encomiums. 

Automaton. 

Automata. 

Basis. 

Bases. 

Erratum. 

Errata. 

Crisis. 

Crises. 

Genius. 

Genii,* 

Criterion. 

Criteria. 

Genus. 

Genera. 

Diaeresis. 

Diaereses. 

Index. 

5  indices  or 

Ellipsis. 

Ellipses. 

I  Indexes.t 

Emphasis. 

Emphases. 

Lamina. 

Laminae. 

Hypothesis. 

Hypotheses. 

Medium. 

Media 

Metamor- 

5 Metamor- 
Y     phoses. 

Magus. 

Magi. 

phosis. 

Memoran- 
.1 

f  Memoranda  0 

Phaenomenc 

►n.  Phaenomena. 

-<      Memoran- 

Appendix. 

C  Appendices  or     "'^'"* 
/Appendixes.    Radius. 

(_     dums. 
Radii. 

Arcanum. 

Arcana. 

Stamen. 

Stamina. 

Axis. 

Axes. 

Stratum. 

Strata. 

Calx. 

Calces. 

Vortex. 

Vortices. 

Some  words,  derived  from  the  learned  languages,  are 
confined  to  the  plural  number:  as,  antipodes,  credenda, 
literati,  minutiae. 

The  follov/ing  nouns  being,  in  Latin,  both  singular  and 
plural,  are  used  in  the  same  manner  when  adored  into 
our  tongue:  hiatus,  apparatus,  series,  species. 

SECTION  4.     (y  Case. 

In  English,  substantives  have  three  cases,  tlie  nomi- 
native, the  possessive,  and  th-e  objective.  § 

*  Getm,  wlien  denoting  aerial  spirits:  Oeniuses,  when  signifying  persons  " 
geniup. 

t  Indexes,  \rh(^a  it  signifies  pointfire,  pr  tgibles  of  contents:  Indices,  viheji  i<i 
ffeiTlng  to  Algebraic  quanlidcs. 

^ The  possesHve  is  soractiirtes  called  tke  genitive  case;  ar.U  ftic  o>j^cfivf^  'iw 
accusative. 


ETYBIOLOGY. 


49 


The  nominative  case  simply  expresses  the  name  oi 
^  thing,  or  the  subject  of  the  verb:  as,  "The  boy 
plays;"  '*The  girls  learn." 

The  poses&ive  case  expresses  the  relation  of  pro- 
perty or  possession;  and  has  an  apostrophe  with  the 
letter  s  coming  after  it:  as,  *'The  scholar's  duty;" 
^*My  father's  house." 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  other  s  is  omitted, 
])ut  the  apostrophe  is  retained:  as,  "on  eagles'  wings;'- 
^•The  drapers'  company." 

Sometimes, also,  when  the  singular  terminates  in  ss^ 
the  apostrophic  s  is  not  added:  as,  *^For  goodness' 
sake;  '   **For  righteousness'  sake." 

The  objective  case  expresses  the  object  of  an  action, 
jr  of  a  relation;  and  generally  follows  a  verb  active, 
or  a  preposition:  as,  * 'John  assists  Charles;"  **They 
live  in  London." 

English  substantives  are  declined  in  the  followina; 
■uanner: 


Nomiiiative  Case, 
Possessive  Case, 
Objective  Case. 

Nominative  Case. 
Possessive  Case. 
^Objective  Case. 


Singular.  Plural. 

A  mother.  Mothers. 

A  mother's.  Mothers'. 

A  mother.  Mothers. 


The  man. 
The  man's. 
The  man. 


The  men. 
The  men's. 
Tlie  men. 


The  English  language,  to  express  difterent  connexiuii^ 
and  relations  of  one  thing  to  another,  uses,  for  the  mosi 
part,  prepositions.  The  Greek  and  Latin  among  the  an- 
cient, aha  some  too  among  the  modern  languages,  ;as  the 
German,  vary  the  termination  or  ending  of  the  substantive^ 
to  answer  tlie  same  purpose ;  an  example  of  which,  in  the 
Latin,  is  inserted,  as  explanatory  of  the  nature  and  use, 
•  »f  cases,  viz.    " 


Singular. 

Vominative. 

DOMINUS, 

A  Lord. 

Genitive. 

Domini, 

Lord's,  of  J 

Dative, 

Domino-, 

To  a  Lord, 

a  Lord 


50 

Jiaausative, 

Vocative. 

^9blative. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 

DOMINUM, 
DOMINE, 

Domino, 


A  Lord. 
O  Lord. 
By  a  Lord. 


Lords. 

Lords',  of  Lords. 

To  Lords. 

Lords. 

0  Lords. 

By  Lords. 


Plural. 

Nominative.  Domini, 

Genitive.  Domino  rum, 

Dative.  Dominis, 

Accusative.  Domino  s, 

Vocative.  Domini, 

Ablative.  Dominis, 

Some  writers  think,  that  the  relations  signified  by  the 
addition  of  articles  and  prepositions  to  the  noun,  may  pro- 
perly be  denominated  cases,  in  English;  and  that,  on  this 
principle,  there  are,  in  our  language,  as  many  cases  as 
m  the  Latin  tongue.  But  to  this  mode  of  forming  cases 
for  our  substantives,  there  are  strong  objections.  It  would, 
indeed,  be  a  formal  and  useless  arrangement  of  nouns, 
articles,  and  prepositions.  If  an  arrangement  of  this 
nature  were  to  be  considered  as  constituting  cases,  the 
Englisli  languaf!;e  would  have  a  much  greater  number  o^ 
them  than  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues :  for,  as  %very 
preposition  has  its  distinct  meanin^and  effect,  every  com- 
bination of  a  preposition  and  article  with  the  noun,  would 
form  a  different  relation,  and  would  constitute  a  distinct 
case. — This  would  encumber  our  language  with  many 
new  terms,  and  a  heavy  and  useless  load  of  distinctions.* 

On  the  principle  of  imitating  other  languages  in  name«^ 

and  forms,  without  a  correspondence  in  nature  and  idiom. 

we  might  adopt  a  number  of  declensions,  as  well  as  a  va 

riety  of  cases,  for  English  substantives.     Thus,   five  or 

six  declensions,  distinguished ,  according  to  the  various 

modes  cff  forming  the  plural  of  substantives,  with  at  least 

half  a  dozen  cases  to  each  declension,  would  furnish  a 

complete  arrangement  of  English  nouns^in  all  their  trap 

pings.    See  on  this  subject,  the  fifth  and  ninth  sections 

of  the  sixth  chapter  of  etymology. 

■  \ 

*  "  If  cases  are  to  be  distinguished  by  the  different  significations  of  Uie  noun,  or 
by  the  dificrent  relations  it  may  bear  to  the  governing  word,  then  we  l)ave  in  our 
language  as  many  cases  almost,  as  there  are  prepositions  :  and  above  a  man,  be- 
Beaih  a  man,  beyond  a  man,  round  about  a  man,  witliin  a  man,  withouta,  man, 
(fee.  shall  be  cases,  as  well  as,  of  a  man,  to  a  man,  and  with  a  man."      *; 

Dr.  Betttie. 


ETYMOLOGY.  51 

But  though  this  variety  of  cases  does  not  at  all  corres- 
pond \Vith  the  idiom  of  our  language,  there  seems  to  be 
great  propriety  in  admitting  a  case  in  English  substan- 
tives, which  shall  serve  to  denote  the  objects  of  active 
verbs  and  of  prepositions  ;  and  which  is,  therefore,  pro- 
perly termed  the  objective  case.  The  general  idea  of  case 
doubtless  has  a  reference  to  the  termination  of  the  noun : 
but  there  are  many  instances,  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in 
which  the  nominative  and  accusative  cases  have  precise- 
ly the  same  form,  and  are  distinguished  only  by  tne  rela- 
tion they  bear  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  We  are 
therefore  warranted,  by  analogy,  in  applying  this  prin- 
ciple to  our  own  language,  as  tar  as  utility,  and  the  idiom 
01  it,  will  admit.  Now  it-  is  obvious^  that  in  English,  a 
noun  governed  by  an  active  verb,  or  a  preposition,  is 
very  differently  circumstanced,  from  a  noun  in  the  nomi- 
native, or  in  the  possessive  case;  and  that  a  comprehen- 
sive case,  correspondent  to  that  difference,  must  be  useful 
and  proper.  The  business  of  parsing,  and  of  showing  the 
connexion  and  dependence  of  words,  will  be  most  con- 
veniently accomplished,  by  the  adoption  of  such  a  case, 
and  the  irregularity  of  having  our  nouns  sometimes  placed 
in  a  situation,  in  which  they  cannot  be  said  to  be  in  any 
case  at  all,  will  be  avoided. 

The  author  of  this  work  long  doubted  the  propriety  of 
assigning  to  English  substantives  an  objective  case:  but 
a  renewed,  critical  examination  of  the  subject;  an  exa- 
mination to  which  he  was  prompted  by  the  extensive  and 
increasing  demand  for  the  grammar,  has  produced  in  his 
mind  a  full  persuasion,  that  tlie  nouns  of  our  language  are 
entitled  to  this  comprehensive  objective  case. 

When  the  thin^  to  which  another  is  said  to  belong,  is 
expressed  by  a  circumlocution,  or  by  many  terms,  the 
sign  of  the  possessive  case  is  commonly  added  to  the  last 
term:  as,  "The king  of  Great  Britain's  dominions." 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  two  nouns  in  the  possessive 
case  immediately  succeed  each  other,  in  the  following 
form:  "My  friend's  wife's  sister;"  a  sense  which  would 
be  better  expressed  by  saying,  "tlie  sister  of  my  friend's 
wife ;"  or, ' 'my  friend's  sister-in-law."  Some  grammar! - 
ans  say,  tliat  in  each  of  the  following  phrases,  viz.    "A 


52  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

book  of  my  brother's,"  «A  servant  of  the  queen's,'^  "A 
soldier  of  the  king's,"  there  are  two  genitive  cases;  the 
first  phrase  implying,  "one  of  the  books  of  my  brother," 
the  next,  "one  of  the  sei-vants  of  the  queen,"  and  the  last, 
'^one  of  the  soldiers  of  the  king."  But  as  the  preposition 
governs  tl>3  objective  case ;  and  as  there  are  not,  m  each 
of  tliese  sentences,  two  apostrophes  with  the  letter  5  com- 
ing after  tliem,  we  cannot  with  propriety  say,  that  there 
are  two  genitive  cases* 

CHAPTER  IV. 

OP  ADJECTIVES. 

Section*  1  i     Of  the  nature  of  Adjectives^  and  the  degrees 
of  comparison. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  substantive,  to 
express  its  quality:  as,  **An  industrious  m2iVi','*'  "A 
virtuous  vs^oman;"  "A  benevolent  mind.'' 

In  English,  the  adjective  is  not  varied  on  account  of 
ojender,  number,  or  case.  Thu&v^re  say,  **A  careless 
boy ;  careless  girls. " 

The  only  variation  which  it  admits,  is  that  of  the 
degrees  of  comparison. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  three  degrees  of 
comparison;  the  positive,  the  comparative,  and  the 

SUPERLATIVE^ 

Grammarians  have  generally  enumerated  these  three 
degrees  of  comparison ;  but  the  first  of  them  has  been 
thought  by  some  writers,  to  be,  impr^perlv^  termed  a  de- 
gree of  comparison  ^  as  it  seems  to  be  nothing  more  than 
the  simple  form  of  the  adjective,  and  not  to  imply  either 
comparison  or  degree.  This  opinion  may  be  well  found- 
ed, unless  the  adjective  be  supposed  to  imply  comparison 
or  degree,  by  containing  a  seci*et  or  general  reference  to 
other  things :  as,  when  we  say,  "he  is  a  tall  man,"  "this 
is  a  fair  day,"  we  make  some  reference  to  the  ordinary 
size  of  men,  and  to  diiferent  weather. 

'  The  Positive  State  expresses  the  quality  of  an  ob- 
ject, without  any  increase  or  diminution:  as,  gpod, 
wi$e,  great. 


ETYMOLO&Y*  53 

The  Comparative  Degree  increases  or  lessens  the 
positive  in  signification :  asy  wiser,  greater,  less  wise* 

The  Superlative  Degree  increases  or  lessens  the 
positive  to  the  highest  or  lowest  degree:  as,  wisest, 
greatest,  least  wise. 

The  simple  word,  or  positive,  becomes  the  compa- 
rative, by  adding  r  or  er;  and  the  superlative,  by 
adding  sr or  est,  to  the  end  of  it:  as,  wise,  wiser, 
wisest;  great,  greater,  greatest.  And  the  adverbs 
more  and  most,  placed  before  the  adjective,  have  the 
same  effect:  as,  wise,  more  wise,  most  wise^ 

The  termination  ish  may  be  accounted  in  some  sort  n 
degree  of  comparison,  by  wliich  the  signification  is  dimin- 
ished below  the  positive :  as,  black,  blackish,  or  tending 
to  blackness ;  salt,  saltish,  or  having  a  little  taste  of  salt. 

The  word  rather  is  verj  properly  used  to  express  a 
small  degree  or  excess  of  a  quality :  as,  "She  is  rather 
profuse  in  her  expenses." 

..  Monosyllables,  for  the  most  part^  are  compared  by  er 
and  es^;  and  dissyllables  by  ?wore  and  77iost:  as,  mild, 
milder,  mildest;  irugal,  more  frugal,,  most  frugal.  Dis 
syllables  ending  in  y;  as,  happy,  lovely;  and  in  le  after 
a  mute,  as,  able,  ample ;  or  accented  on  the  last  syllable, 
as,  discreet,  polite;  easily  admit  of  er  and  est:  as,  hap- 
pier, happiest;  abler,  ablest;  politer,  politest.  Words 
of  more  than  two  syllables  hardly  ever  admit  of  those 
terminations. 

In  some  words  the  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  thi" 
adverb  most  to  the  end  of  them ;  as,  nethermost,  utter- 
most, or  utmost,  undermost,  uppermost,  foremost. 

In  English,  as  in  most  languages,  there  are  some  words 
of  very  common  use,  (in  which  the  caprice  of  custom  is 
apt  to  get  the  better  of  analogy, )  that  are  irregular  iii 
this  respect:  as,  "good,  better,  best;  bad,  worse,  worst; 
little,  less,  least;  much  or  many,  more,  most;  near, 
nearer,  nearest  or  next;  late,  later,  latest  or  last;  old, 
older  or  elder,  oldest  or  eldest;"  and  a  few  others. 
'"'An  adjective  put  without  a  substantive,with  the  definite 
article  before  it,  becomes  a  substantive  in  sense  and 
meaning,  and  is  written  as  a  substantive ;  as,  "Providence 
rewards  the  good,  and  punishes  the  bad,^^  ^ 
E2. 


S4 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


subject  of  any  discourse :  first,  the  person  who  speaks,, 
may  speak  of  himself ;  secondly,  he  may  speak  of  the  per- 
son to  whom  he  addresses  himself;  thirdly,  he  may  speak 
of  some  other  person :  and  as  the  speakers,  the  persons 
spoken  to,  and  the  other  persons  spoken  of,  may  be  many, 
so  each  of  these  persons  must  have  the  plural  number. 

The  numbers  of  pronouns,  like  those  of  substan- 
tives, are  two,  the  singular  and  the  plural:  as,  /,  tlioii^ 
he;  ive.  ye  or yoUf  they. 

Gender  has  respect  only  to  the  third  person  singu- 
lar of  the  pronouns,  he,  she,  it.  lie  is  masculine  ;  she 
is  feminine;  27  is  neutery 

The  persons  speaking  and  spoken  to,  being  at  the  same 
time  the  subjects  of  the  discourse,  are  supposed  to  be  pre- 
sent; from  which,  and  other  circumstances,  their  sex  is 
commonly  known,  and  needs  not  to  be  marked  by  a  dis- 
tinction of  gender  in  the  pronouns:  but  the  third  person 
or  thing  spoken  of,  being  absent,  and  in  many  respects 
unknown,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  marked  by  a 
distinction  of  gender;  at  least  when  some  particular  per- 
son or  thing  is  spoken  of,  that  ought  to  be  more  distinctly 
marked :  accordingly  the  pronoun  singular  of  the  third 
person,  has  the  three  genders,  he,  she,  it. 

#•  Pronouns  haye  three  cases;  the  nominative,  the 
possessive,  and  the  objective. 

The  objective  case  of  a  pronoun  has,  ii\.  general,  a  form 
tlifferent  from  that  of  the  nominative,  or  the  possessive 
rase. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined: 


Person. 

Case. 

First/''0 

Norn. 

■-  :,    r.  ■ 

Pass. 

Obj. 

Second, 

Norn. 

Foss. 

Obj. 

Third. 

Norn. 

Mas, 

Foss. 

Obj. 

Singular. 
I. 

Mine. 

Me. 

Thou. 

Thine. 

Thee. 

He. 

His. 

Him. 


Plural. 

We. 

Ours. 

Us. 

Ye  or  you. 

Yours. 

You. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them.  , 


-t 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Person. 

Case. 

Singular, 

Third. 

Norn. 

.      She. 

Fern. 

Poss. 

Hers, 

Obj. . 

Her. 

Third. 

Noni. 

It. 

Neuter. 

Foss. 

Its. 

Obj. 

It. 

Sf 


Plural, 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them. 


Section  2.     Of  the  Relative  Pronouns, 

Relative  Pronouns  are  such  as  relate,  in  general,- 
to  some  word  or  phrase  going  before,  which  is  thence 
called  the  antecedent:  they  are,  who,  which^  and  that: 
as,  **The  man  is  happy  t^^/io  lives  virtuously.^'* 

fFhat  is  a  kind  of  compound  relative,  including  both 
the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  is  mostly  equiva- 
lent to  that  which:  as,  **This  is  what  I  wanted;"  that 
is  to  say,  "Me  thing  which  I  wanted." 

Who  is  applied  to  persons,  which  to  animals  and  in- 
animate thmgs:  as,  ''He  is  ^frienfl,  who  is  faithful  in 
adversity;"  "The  bird,  which  sung  so  sweetly,  is 
flown;"  "This  is  the  tree,  which  produces  no  fruit." 

T7iat,  as  a  relative,  is  often  used  to  prevent  the  too 
frequent  repetition  of  who  and  which.  It  is  applied  to 
both  persons  and  things:  as,  '^ffe  that  acts  wisely  de- 
serves praise;"  "Modesty  is  a  quality  that  highly 
csdorns  a  woman." 

TVho  is  of  both  numbers,  and  is  thus  declined: 

Singular  and  Plural. 
Nominative,  Who. 

Possessive,  Whose. 

Objective.  Whom. 

TVhich,  that,  and  what,  are  likewise  of  both  numbers, 
but  they  do  not  vary  their  teiinination ;  except  that  whosi 
is  sometimes  used  as  the  possessive  case  of  which:  as, 
*'Is  there  any  other  doctrine  whose  followers  are  pu- 
nished ?" 


*  The  relative  pronoun,  when  used  interrogatively,  relates  to  a  word  or  phrase 
which  i3  not  antecedmu  hut  8ub$t^v.ent,  to  the  relative.  S«e  note  undei  U«  Y^ 
Rule  of  Syntax. 


58  ENGUSft  GRAMMAR. 


."And  the  fruit 


Of  that  forbidden  tree  whose  mortal  taste 

Brought  death."  *  milton* 

"Pure  the  joy  without  allaj, 


Whose  very  rapture  is  tranquillity."  young » 

"The  lights  and  shades,  whose  well  accorded  strife 
Gives  all  the  strength  and  colour  of  our  life."       pope. 

''This  is  one  of  the  clearest  characteristics  of  its  being 
a  religion  whose  origin  is  divine."  blair. 

By  the  use  of  this  license,  one  word  is  substituted  for 
three:  as,  "Philosophy,  i^^Aose  end  is  to  instruct  us  in  the 
knowledge  of  nature,"  for,  "Philosophy,  ^Aeend  of  which 
is  to  instruct  us,"  &c. 

Wio,  which,2ind  ivhat,  have  sometimes  the  words  soever 
and  ever  annexed  to  them;  as,  'Whosoever  or  idhoever^ 
ivhichsoever  or  whichever^  whatsoever  or  whatever:''^  but 
they  are  seldom  used  in  modern  style.  ♦ 

-i-^The  word  that  is  sometimes  a  relative,  sometimes  a  de- 
monstrative pronoun^iind  sometimes  a  conjunction.  It  is 
a  relative,  when  it  may  be  turned  into  who  or  which  with- 
out destroying  the  sense:  as,  ''They  that  (who)  reprove 
us,  may  be  our  best  friends;"  "From  every  thing  that 
(which)  you  see,  derive  instruction."  It  is  a  demonstra- 
l^e  pronoun  when  it  is  followed  immediately  by  a  sub- 
stantive, to  which  it  is  either  joined,  or  refers,  and  which 
it  limits  or  qualifies:  as,  ''That  boy^is  industrious;" 
"That  belongs  to  me;"  meaning,  that  book,,  that  desk, 
&c.  It  is  a  conjunction,  when  it  joins  sentences  together, 
and  cannot  be  turned  into  who  or  which,  without  destroy- 
ing the  sense :  as,  "Take  care  that  every  day  be  well 
employed."  '^'I  hope  he  will  believe  tfiat  I  have  not 
acted  improperly ."«^- 

Who,  which,  and  what,  are  called  Interrogatives,  when 
they  are  used  in  asking  questions;  as,  "Who  is  he?" 
"TVhich  is  the  book  ?"  "What  art  thou  doing?" 

JVhether  was  formerly  made  use  of  to  signify  inten-o- 
gation:  as,  "Wliether  of  these  shall  I  choose?"  but  it  is 
now  seldom  used,  the  interrogative  which  ifeing  substi- 
tuted for  it.  Some  Grammarians  think  that  the  use  of  it 
should  be  revived,^  as,  like  either  and  neither,  it  points  to 


ETYMOLOGY.  59 

the  dual  number;  and  would  contribute  to  render  our 
expressions  concise  and  definite. 

Some  writers  have  classed  the  interrogatives  &s  a  sepa- 
rate kind  of  pronouns ;  but  they  are  too  nearly  related 
to  the  relative  pronouns,  both  in  nature  and  form,  to  ren- 
der such  a  division  proper.  They  do  not,  in  fact,  lose 
the  character  of  relatives,  when  they  become  interroga- 
lives.  The  only  difference  is,  that  without  an  interroga- 
tion, the  relatives  have  reference  to  a  subject  wliich  is 
antecedent,  definite,  and  known ;  ivith  an  interrogation, 
to  a  subject  which  is  subsequent,  indefinite,  and  unknown, 
and  which  it  is  expected  tliat  the  answer  should  express 
and^  ascertain. 

Section  3.     Of  the  Adjective  Pronouns. 

0  Adjective  Pronouns  are  of  a  mixed  nature,  particu 
patingthe  properties  both  of  pronouns  and  adjectives. 

The  adjective  pronouns  may  be  subdivided  intc 
four  sorts,  namely,  the  possessive,  the  distributive,  the 
demonstrative,  and  the  indefinite. 

1.  The  possessive  are  those  which  relate  to  posses 
sion  or  property.  There  are  seven  of  them ;  viz.  mi/^ 
thy,  his,  her,  our,  "^Mr,  their. 

Mine  and  thine,  instead  of  my  and  thy,  were  formerly 
Used  before  a  substantive,  or  adjective,  beginning  with  a 
vowel,  or  a  silent  h:   as,  **Blot  out  all  mine  iniquities." 

The  pronouns,  his,  mine,  thine,  have  the  same  form, 
whether  they  are  possessive  pronouns,  or  the  possessive 
cases  of  their  respective  personal  pronouns.  See  note  to 
Rule  10.  ^ 

A  few  examples  will  probably  assist  the  learner,  to  dis 
tinguish  the  possessive  pronouns  from  the  genitive-cases 
of  their  correspondent  personal  pronouns. 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  possessive  pro- 
nouns.— ''My  lesson  is  finished;   Thy  books  are  defaced; 
He  loves  his  studies;  She  performs  her  duty;  We  ownt/. 
our  faults;  Your  situation  is  distressing;   I  admire  their 
virtues."  ^ 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  possessive  cases  of 
the  personal  pronouns, — ''This  desk  is  mine;  the  other 
is  thine;  These  trinkets  are  his;  those  are  hers;  Thi« 


60  ENGLISH  GRAMMAH. 

house  is  ours,  and  that  is  yours  ^  Theirs  is  very  commo- 
dious." 

1  Some  grammarians  consider  its  as  a  possessive  pronoun. 
'  The  two  words  own  and  self,  are  used  in  conjunction 
with  pronouns.  Own  is  added  to  possessives,  both  singu- 
lar and  plural:  as,  "iWy  own  hand,'  our  oz^^'n house."  It 
is  emphatical,  and  implies  a  silent  contrariety  or  opposi- 
tion: as,  "I  live  in  my  own  house,"  that  is,  "not  in  a 
hired  house."  Self  is  added  to  possessives:  as,  myself 
yourselves;  and  sometimes  to  personal  pronouns :  as,  him- 
self itself  themselves.  It  then,  like  own.,  expresses  em- 
phasis and  opposition:  as,  "I  did  this  myself,"  that  is, 
*'not  another;"^  or  it  forms  a  reciprocal  pronoun:  aS) 
*^*We  hurt  ourselves  by  vain  rage." 

Himself  themselves,  are  now  used  in  the  nominative 
case  instead  of  hisself  their  selves;  as,  '^He  came  him* 
self;"  '*He  himself  shall  do  this;"  "They  performed  it 
themselves." 

2.  The  distributive  are  those  which  denote  the  per- 
sons or  things  that  make  up  a  number,  as  taken  sepa- 
rately and  singly.  They  are  eacli,  every,  either:  as, 
^^Each  of  his  brothers  is  in  a  favourable  situation;" 
^^ Every  man  must  account  for  hi|i[i§elf;''  *'I  have  not 
Sj3en  ei7/ier  of  them. ^ 

\  .Each  relates  to  two  or  more  persons  or  things,  and 
Vi^nifies  either  of  the  two,  or  every  one  of  any  number 
taken  separately. 

Every  relates  to  several  persons  or  things,  and  signifies 
each  one  of  them  all  taken  separately.  This  pronoun 
was  formerly  used  apart  from  its  noun,  but  it  is  now  con- 
stantly annexed  to  it,  (^xcept  in  legal  proceedings.^  as  in 
the  phrase,  "all  and  every  of  them." 

Either  relates  to  two  persons  or  things  taken  separately, 
and  signifies  tlie  one  or  the  other.  To  say,  "either  of 
the  three,"  is  therefore  improper. 

Neither  imports  ''•not  either  f'  that  is,  not  one  nor  the 
other:  as,  "Neither  of  my  friends  was  there." 

3.  The  demonstrative  are  those  which  precisely  point 
v)ut  the  subjects  to  which  they  relate:  this  and  that, 
these  and  those,  are  of  this  class:  as,  ^^This  is  true 
ohaiity;  tlmt  is  only  its  image." 


ETYMOLOGY.  61 

7%i5  refers  to  the  nearest  person  or  thing,  and  that 
to  the  most  distant:  as,  *'77«s  man  is  more  intelligent 
than  that. "  This  indicates  the  latter  or  last  mentioned; 
that,  the  former  or  first  mentioned:  as,  '^Both  wealth 
and  poverty  are  temptations;  that,  tends  to  excite 
pride,  this,  discontent.'" 


Perhaps  the  words  former  and  latter  may  be  properly 
ranked  amongst  the  demonstrative  pronouns,  especially  in 
many  x)f  their  appUcations.  The  following  sentence  may 
serve  as  an  example:  "It  was  happy  for  the  state,  that 
Fabius  continued  in  the  command  with  Minucius :  the 
former^ s  phlegm  was  a  check  upon  the  latter^ s  vivacity." 

4.  The  Irulefinite  are  those  which  express  their  sub- 
jects in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner.  The  fol- 
lowing are  of  this  kind:  some,  Uher^  any,  one,  all, 
such,  &c^^ 

Of  these  pronouns,  only  the  words  one  and  other  are 
varied.  One  has  a  possessive  case,  which  it  forms  in  the 
same  manner  as  substantives :  as,  one,  one^s.  This  word 
has  a  general  signification,  meaning  people  at  large ;  and 
sometimes  also  a  peculiar  reference  to  tlie  person  who  is 
speaking:  as,  "One  o"ght  to  pity  the  distresses  of  mai^ 
kind."  "0;ie  is  apt  to  love  one's  self."  This  word  is 
often  used,  by  good  writers,  in  the  plural  number:  as, 
**The  great  ones  of  the  world;"  '^The  boy  wounded  the 
t)ld  bird,  and  stole  the  young  ones-;^^  *'My  wife  and  the 
little  ones  are  in  good  health." 
♦  Other  is  declined  in  the  following  manner : 

Singi^^r.  Plural. 

Nom.  Other  Others, 

Poss.  Other^s  Others\ 

Obj.  Other  Others, 

The  plural  others  is  only  used  when  apart  from  tlte 
noun  to  which  it  refers,  whether  expressed  or  understood ; 
as,  <'When  you  have  perused  these  papers,  I  will  send 
you  the  others,^^  '*He  pleases  some,  but  he  dis^ists 
others^  When  this  pronoun  is  joined  to  nouns,  either 
lingular  or  plural,  it  has  no  variation :  as,  'Hhe  otRer 
luan,"  *Hhe  other  men." 
F 


63  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

^  The  following  phrases  may  seWe  to  exemplify  the  inde- 
finite pronouns.  "/Some  of  you  are  wise  and  good;"  "A 
few  of  them  were  idle,  the  others  industrious;"  "Neither 
is  there  any  that  is  unexceptionable;"  '^One  ought  to 
know  one's  own  mind ;"  ''They  were  all  present ;"  ''Such 
is  the  state  of  man,  that  he  is  never  at  rest;"  ^'Some  are 
happy,  while  others  are  miserable." 

The  word  another  is  composed  of  the  indefinite  article 
prefixed  to  the  word  other. 

None  is  used  in  both  numbers:  as,  ^'None  is  so  deaf  as 
he  that  will  not  hear;"  ''None  of  those  are  equal  to 
these."  It  seems  originally  to  have  signified,  according 
to  its  derivation,  not  one^  and  therefore  to  have  had  no 
plural;  but  there  is  good  authority  for  the  use  of  it  in  the 
}>lural  number :  as,  "None-  that  go  unto  her  return  again." 
Prov.  ii.  19.  *'Terms  of  peace  were  none  vouchsaf 'd." 
Milton.  "  None  of  them  are  varied  to  express  the  gen- 
der." "None  of  them  have  diiferent  endings  for  i^e  num- 
bers." Lowth's  Introduction.  "None  of  their  produc- 
tions are  extant."  Blair. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  explain  the  nature  of  the 
adjective  pronouns,  and  to  distinguish  and  arrange  them 
intelligibly :  but  it  is  difficult,  perhaps  imjjracticable,  to 
define  and  divide  them  in  a  manner  perfectly  unexcep- 
tionable. Some  of  them,  in  particular,  may  seem  to  re- 
quire a  different  arrangement.  We  presume,  however, 
that,  for  every  useful  purpose,  the  present  classification  is 
sufficiently  correct.  All  the  pronouns,  except  the  per- 
sonal and  relative,  may  indeed,  in  a  general  view  of  them, 
be  considered  as  definitive  pronouns,  because  they  defins?- 
or  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  common  name,  or  general 
term,  to  which  they  refer,  or  are  joined;  but  as  each 
class  of  them  does  this,  more  br  less  exactly,  or  in  a  man 
iier  peculiar  to  itself,  a  division  adapted  to  this  circum 
stance  appears  to  be  suitable  to  the  nature  of  things,  and 
the  understanding  of  learners. 

-  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  respectable  grammarians,  that 
the  words  this,  that,  any,  soine,  such,  his,  their,  our,  &c.  are 
pronouns,  when  they  are  used  separately  from  the  nouns 
lo  which  they  relat»  ;  but  that,  when  they  are  joined  to 
those  nouns,  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  belon^in^ 
to  this  species  of  wor^s;  because,  in  this  association. 


ETYMOLOGY.  68 

they  rather  ascertain  a  substantive,  than  supply  th6  place 
of  one.  They  assert  that,  in  the  phrases,  ''give  nte 
/to,"  "this  is  John's,"  and  ''such  were  some  of  you," 
the  words  in  italics  are  pronouns;  but  that,  in  the  fol- 
lowing phrases,  they  are  not  pronouns;  ''this  book  is 
instructive,"  "some  boys  are  ingenious,"  "my  health  is 
declining,"  "owr  hearts  are  deceitful,"  &c.  Other  gram- 
marians think,  that  all  these  words  are  pure  adjectives; 
and  that  none  of  them  can  prbperly  bft  called  pronouns; 
as  the  genuine  pronoun  stands  by  itself,  without  the  aid 
of  a  noun  expressed  or  understood.  They  are  of  opinion, 
that  in  the  expressions,  "Give  me  that,"  "this  is  John's," 
&c.  the  noun  is  always  understood,  and  must  be  supplied 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader:  as,  "Give  me  that  bookf"^ 
"this  book  is  John's;"  "and  such  persons  were  some  pe,i'- 
sons  amongst  you." 

Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the  pronouns  should 
be  classed  into  substwirive  2Lud  adjective  pronouns.  Under 
the  former,  they  include  the  personal  and  the  relative; 
Under  the  latter,  all  the  others.  But  this  division,  though 
a  neat  one,  does  not  appear  to  be  accurate.  All  the  rela- 
,tive  pronouns  will  not  range  under  the  substantive  head.— 
"We  have  distributed  these  parts  of  grammar,  in  the  mode 
which  we  think  va.^»%  correct  and  intelligible :  but,  for  the 
information  of  students,  and  to  direct  then-  inquiries  on 
the  subject,  we  state  the  different  opinions  oT  sev^l 
judicious  grammarians.  See  the  Octavo  Grammar  oh 
these  points. 

CHAPTER  VL 

OF    VERBS. 

Section  1.     Of  the  nature  of  Verbs  in  general. 

A  VERB  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or 
to  suffer;  as,   *'I  am,  T  rule,  I  am  ruled." 

Verbs  are  of  three  kinds;  active,  passive,  and 
NEUTER.  They  are  also  divided  into  regular,  ir- 
regular, and  defective. 

A  Verb  Active  expresses  an  action,  and  necessa- 
rily implies  an  agent,  and  an  object  acted  upon:  as. 
to  love;  "I  love  Penelope." 


64  ENGLISH   OBAS^AB. 

A  Verb  Passive  expresses  a  passion  or  a  suffering*, 
Or  the  receiving  of  an  action;  and  necessarily  implies 
an  object  acted  upon,  and  an  agent  by  which  it  is 
acted  upon:  as,  to  be  loved;  **Penelope  is  loved  by 
me/' 

A  Verb  Neuter  expresses  neither  actioa  nor  pas- 
sion," but  being,  or  a  state  of  being:  as,  **I  am,  I 
sleep,  I  sit/\* 

The  verb  active  is  also  called  transitive,  because  the 
action  passes  over  to  the  object,  or  has  an  effect  upon 
some  other  thing:  as,  "The  tutor  instructs  his  pupils;" 
"I  esteem  the  man." 

Verbs  neuter  may  properly  be  denominated  intransi- 
tlves,  because  the  effect  is  confined  within  the  subject, 
and  does  not  pass  over  to  any  object:  as,  "I  sit,  he  lives, 
they  sleep." 

Some  of  the  verbs  that  are  usually  ranked  among  neu- 
ters, make  a  near  approach  to  the  nature  of  a  verb  active; 
but  they  may  be  distinguislied  from  it  by  their  being  in- 
transitive :  as,  to  run,  to  walk,  to  fly,  &e.  The  rest  are 
more  obviously  neuter,  and  more  clearly  expressive  of  a 
middle  state  between  action  and  passion;  as, to  stand,  to 
lie,  to  sleep,  &c. 

In  English,  many  verbs  are  used  both  in  an  active  and  a 
^i^uter  signification,  the  construction  only  determining  of 
which  kind  they  are:  as,  to  flatten,  signifying  to  inake 
even  or  level,  is  a  verb  active;  but  when  it  signifies  to 
grow  dull  or  insipid,  it  is  a  verb  neuter. 

A  neuter  verb,  by  the  addition  of  a  preposition,  may 
become  a  compound  active  verb.  To  smile  is  a  neuter 
verb;  it  cannot,  therefore,  be  followed  by  an  objective 

*  Verbs  have  been  distinguished  by  sonre  writers,  into  the  following  kinds. 

1st.  Active-transitive,  or  those  which  denote  an  action  that  passed  from  the 
agent  to  some  object :  as,  Caesar  conquered  Pompey. 

2d.  Active-intransitive,  or  those  which  express  that  kind  of  action,  which  has 
no  effect  upon  any  thing  beyond  the  agent  himself:  as,  Csesar  walked. 

3d.  Passive,  or  those  which  express,  not  action,  but  passion,  whether  pleasing 
or  painful:  as,  Portia  was  loved;  Pompey  was  conquered. 

4th.  JVeuttr,  or  those  which  express  an  attribute  that  consists  neither  in  action 
nor  passion:  as,  Ciesar  stood. 

This  appears  to  be  an  orderly  arrangement.    But  if  the  class  ot active-intran- 
sitive vei  bs  were  admitted,  it  would  rather  perplex  than  assist  the  learner :  for 
the  ditference  between  verbs  active  and  neuter,  as  transitive  and  intraositive,  i* 
easy  and  obvious ;  but  the  difference  between  veibs  absolutely  neuter  and  Intrar 
sitively  active,  is  not  always  dear.    It  is,  indeed,  often  very  difficuU  to  be  asce 
tained. 


ETYMOLOGY.  65 

case,  nor  be  construed  as  a  passive  verb.  We  cannot  say, 
she  smiled  him,  or,  he  was  smiled.  But  to  smile  on  being 
a  compound  active  verb,  we  properly  sav,  she  smiled  on 
him;  he  was  smiled  on  by  fortune  in  every  undertaking. 

W  Auxiliary  or  helping  verbs,  are  those  by  theifelp  of 
which  the  English  verbs  are  principally  conjugated. 
They  are,  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  with  their 
variations;  and  let  and  must,  which  have  no  variation^ 

In  our  definition  of  the  verb,  as  a  part  of  speech  which 
signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  suffer,  &c.  we  have  included 
every  thing,  either  expressly  or  by  necessary  consequence, 
that  is  essential  to  its  nature,  and  nothing  that  is  not  es- 
sential to  it.  This  definition  is  warranted  by  the  authority 
of  Dr.  Lowth,  and  of  many  other  respectable  writers  on 
grammar.  There  are,  however,  some  grammarian,  who 
consider  assertion  as  the  essence  of  the  verb.  But^s  th^, 
participle  and  the  infinitive,  if  included  in  it,  would  prove 
insuperable  objection's  to  their  scheme,  they  have,  without 
hesitation,  denied  the  former  a  place  in  the  verb,  and  de- 
clared the  latter  to  be  merely  an  ab&tract  noun.  This  ap- 
pears to  be  going  rather  too  far  in  support  of  an  hypothesis. 
It  seems  to  be  incumbent  on  these  grammarialis,  to  reject 
also  the  imperative  mood.  What  part  of  speecli  would 
they  make  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentence?  "Depart 
instantly:  improve  your  time:  forgive  us  our  sins."  Will 
it  be  said,  that  the  verbs  in  these  phrases  are  assertions? 

In  reply  to  these  questions,  it  has  been  said,  tlmt  **De- 
part  instantly,"  is  an  expression  equivalent  to,  '*I  desire 
you  to  depart  instantly;"  and  that  as  the  latter  phrase  im 
plies  affirmation  or  assertion,  so  does  the  former.  But, 
supposing  the  phrases  to  be  exactly  alike  in  sense,  the 
reasoning  is  not  conclusive.  1st.  In  the  latter  phrase,  the 
only  part  ijnplying  affirmation,  is,  "I  desire."  The  words 
"to  depart,"  are  in  the  infinitive  mood,  and  contain  no 
assertion:  they  affirm  nothing.  2nd.  The  position  is  not 
tenable,  that  "Equivalence  in  sense  implies  similarity  in 
gi-ammatical  nature."  It  proves  too  much,  and  therefore 
nothing.  -This  mode  of  reasoning  would  ponfound  the 
acknowledged  grammatical  distinction  of  words.    A  pro  • 

"  «  Let,  as  a  principal  ve^,  hiis  latest  and  lettcth;  but  as  a  helping  verb,  U  ad* 
'"aits  of  no  variation. 
F.2 


66  ENGLISH  ORAISMAR. 

notin,  on  this  principle,  may  be  proved  to  be  a  noun;'  m 
noun,  a  verb;  an  adverb,  a  noun  and  preposition;  the 
superlative  degree,  the  comparative;  the  imperative  mood, 
the  indicative;  the  future  tense,  the  present;  and  so  on: 
because  thej  may  respectively  be  resolved  into  similar 
meanings.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  '*I  desire  you  to  de- 
part," the  words  to  depart,  may  be  called  a  noun,  because 
they  are  equivalent  in  sense  to  the  noun  departure,  in  the 
following  sentence,  "I  desire  your  departure."  The  words 
"depart  instantly,"  may  be  proved  to  be,  not  the  impera- 
tive mood  with  an  adverb,  but  the  indicative  and  infinitive, 
with  a  noun  and  preposition;  for  they  are  equivalent  to 
*'I  desire  you  to  depart  in  an  instant."  The  superlative 
degree  in  this  sentence,  "Of  all  acquirements  virtue  is  the 
most  valuable,"  may  pass  for  the  comparative,  because  it 
convtj^s  the  same  sentiment  as,  ''Virtue  is  more  valuable 
than  every  other  acquirement."  ^ 

*  We  shall  not  pursue  this  subject  any  further j  as  the 
reader  must  be  satisfied,  that  only  the  word  desire,  in  the 
equivalent  sentence,  implies  affirmation;  and  that  one 
phrase  may,  in  sense,  be  equivalent  to  another,  though 
its  grammatical  nature  is  essentially  different. 

To  verbs  belong  number, person,  Moon^and  tense* 

;  Section  2.     Of  Number  and  JPer son. 

Verbs  have  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and  the 
Plural:  as,  ''Irun,  we  run,"  &c. 

In  each  number  there  are  three  persons;  as^ 

Singular.  Plural, 

First  Person,  I  love.  We  love. 

Second  Person.      Thou  lovest  Ye-^r  you  love. 

Third  Person,        He  loves.  They  love.  / 

Thw  the  verb,  in  some  parts  of  it,  varies  its  endings,  to 
express,  or  agree  with,  different  persons  of  the  same  num- 
ber: as,  ''I  love,  thou  lovest;  he  loveth,  or  loves:^^  and  al- 
so to  express  different  numbers  of  the  same  person:  as:, 
"thou  lovest,  ye  /ore;  he  loveth,  they  /ove."  In  the  plural 
number  of  the  verb,  there  is  no  variation  of  ending  to  ex 
presi  the  different  persons;  and  the  verb,  ia  the  three  pe^  - 


£TYHOLOGYi  '  67 

sons  plural,  is  the  same  as  it  is  in  the  first  person  singular. 
Yet  this  scanty  provision  of  terminations  is  sufficient  for 
all  the  purposes  of  discourse,  and  no  ambiguity  arises  from 
it:  ^e  verb  being  always  attended,  either  with  the  noun 
expressing  the  subject  acting  or  acted  upon,  or  with  the 
pronoun  representing  it.  For  this  reason,  the  plural  ter- 
mination in  en,  they  loven,  they  weren,  formerly  in  use,  was 
laid  aside  as  unnecessary,  and  has  long  been  obsolete. 

Section  3.     Of  Moods  and  Participles, 
• 

•  Mood  or  Mode  is  a  particular  form  of  the  verb, 
showing  the  manner  in  which  the  being,  action,,  or 
passion,  is  represented. 

The  nature  of  a  mood  may  be  more  intelligibly  explain- 
ed to  the  scholar,  by  observing,  that  it  consists  in  the 
change  which  the  verb  undergoes,  to  signify  various  inten- 
tions of  the  mind,  aiidf  various  modifications  and  circum- 
stances  of  action:  which  explanation,  if  compared  witli 
the  following  account  and  uses  of  the  different  moods, 
will  be  found  to  agree  with  and  illustrate  them. 

I  There  are  five  moods  of  verbs, the  indicative,  the 
IMPERATIVE,  the  POTENTIAL,  the  SUBJUNCTIVE,  and 

the  INFINITIVE. 

The  Indicative  Mood  simply  indicates  or  declares 
a  thing:  as,  *'He  loves,  he  is  loved:''  or  it  asks  a 
question:  as,  '^Does  he  love?"  **Is  he  loved?" 

The  Imperative  Mood  is  used  for  commanding,  ex- 
horting, entreating,  or  permitting:  as;  * 'Depart  thou  3 
mind  ye  J  let  us  stay;  go  in  peace^ 

Though  this  mood  derives  its  name  from  its  intimation 
of  command,  it  is  used  on  occasions  of  a  very  opposite  na- 
ture, even  in  the  humblest  supplications  of  an  inferior 
being  to  one  who  is  infinitely  his  superior:  as,  '<Give  us 
this  day  our  daily  bread;  and  forgive  us  our  trespasses.'* 

•  The  Potential  Mood  implies  possibility  or  liberty, 
power,  will,  or  obligation:  as,  **It  may  rain;  he  may 
go  or  stay,  I  can  ride;  he  would  walk;  they  should 
learn." 
The  Subjunctive  Mood  represents  a  thing  under  a 
ndition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c.  and  is  pre- 


88  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

ceded  by  a  conjunction,  expressed  or  understood^  and 
attended  by  another  verb:  as,  "I  will  respect  him, 
thoughhe  chide  me;"  "Were  he  good,  he  would  be 
happy ;"  that  is  **«/*  he  were  good.'^ — See  note  S  to 
Rule  19. 

The  Infinitive  Mood  expresses  a  thing  in  a  general 
and  unlimited  manner,  without  any  distinction  of  num- 
ber or  person;  as,  'Ho  act,  to  speak,  to  be  feared." 

The  participle  is  a  certain  form  of  the  verb,  and  de- 
rives its  name  from  its  participating,  not  only  of  the 
properties  of  a  verb,  but  also  of  those  of  an  adjectiv^:^ 
as,  **I  am  diQsiYOxxsoi  knowing  him;^^  '•'Admired  anct 
applauded,  he  became  vain;"  '^Having  finished  his 
work,  he  submitted  it,"  &c. 

There  are  three  participles,  the  Present  or  Active, 
the  Perfect  or  Passive,  and  the  Compound  Perfect: 
as,  **loving,  loved,  having  loved." — Seep.  94. 

Agreeably  to  the  general  practice  of  grammarians,  wc 
have  represented  the  present  participle,  as  active;  and  the 
past,  as  passive:  but  they  are  not  uniformly  so:  the  pre- 
sent is  sometimes  passive;  and  the  past  is  frequently  ac- 
tive. Thus,  ''The  youth  was  consuming  by  a  slow  ma-- 
iady;"  "The  Indian  was  burning  by  the  cruelty  of  his 
enemies;"  appear  to  be  instances  of  the  present  participle 
being  used  passively.  "He  has  instructed  me;"  "I  have 
gratefully  repaid  his  kindness;"  are  examples  of  the  past 
participle  being  applied  in  an  active  sense.  We  may  also 
obseive,  that  the  present  participle  is  sometimes  associated 
widi  the  past  and  future  tenses  of  the  verb;  and*  the  past 
participle  connected  with  the  present  and  future  tenses. — 
The  most  unexceptionable  distinction  which  grammarians 
make  between  the  participles,  is,  that  the  one  points  to 
the  continuation  of  the  action,  passion,  or  state,  denoted 
by  the  verb;  and  the  other,  to  the  completion  of  it.  Thus, 
the  present  participle  signifies  imperfect  action,  or  action 
oegim  and  not  ended:  as,  "I  am  tvritinga.  letter."  The 
past  participle  signifies  action  perfected,  or  finished:  a#, 
>'I  ha.\e  written  sl  letter;"  '*The  letter  is  writtm,'^^ 


*Whcn  this  participle  13  joined  to  the  verb  «o  havr,  it  is  called  perfec 
is  joined  to  tbc  verb  to  be  or  understood  with  it,  it  is  denofiiinated  pa^ ^  <  > 


ETYMOLOGY.  61^ 

The  participle  is  distinguished  from  the  adjective,  by 
the  former's  expressing  the  idea  of  time,  and  the  latter^a 
denoting  only  a  quality.  The  phrases,  ' 'loving  to  give  as 
well  as  to  receive,"  ''moving  in  haste,"  ' 'heated  with 
liquor,"  contain  participles  giving  the  idea  of  time;  but 
the  epithets  contained  in  the  expressions,  "a  loving 
child,"  "a  moving  spectacle,"  "a  heated  imagination," 
mark  simply  the  qualities  referred  to,  without  any  regard 
to  time;  and  may  properly  be  called  participial  adjectives. 
Participles  not  only  convey  the  notion  of  time;  but  they 
also  signify  actions,  and  govern  the  cases  of  nouns  and 
pronouns,  in  the  same  manner  as  verbs  do;  and  therefore 
should  be  comprehended  in  the  general  name  of  verbs. 
That  they  are  mere  modies  of  the  verb,  is  manifest,  if  our 
definition  of  a  verb  be  admitted:  for  they  signify  bein^, 
doing,  or  suffering,  with  the  designation  of  time  superadded. 
But  if  the  essence  of  the  verb  be  made  to  consist  in  affir- 
mation or  assertion,  not  only  the  participle  will  be  ex- 
cluded from  its  place  in  the  verb,  but  the  infinitive  itself 
also;  which  certain  ancient  grammarians  of  great  autho- 
rity held  to  be  alone  the  genuine  verb,  simple  and  uncon- 
nected with  persons  and  circumstances. 

The  following  phrases,  even  when  considered  in  them- 
selves, show  that  participles  include  the  idea  of  time: 
'*The  letter  being  written,  or  having  been  written}*'* 
**Charles  being  writing,  having  written,  or  having  been 
writing.^^  But  when  arranged  in  an  entire  sentence, 
which  they  must  be  to  make  a  complete  sense,  they  show 
it  still  more  evidently:  as,  ''Charles  Imving  written  iht 
letter,  sealed  and  despatched  it." — The  participle  does 
indeed  associate  with  aifferent  tenses  of  the  verb:  as,  **I 
am  writing,"  "I  was  writing,"  "I  shall  be  writing:"  but 
this  forms  no  just  objection  to  its  denoting  time.  If  the 
time  of  it  is  often  relative  time,  this  circumstance,  far 
from  disproving,  supports  our  position.*  See  observations 
under  Ride  IS  of  Syntax. 

\     Participles  sometimes  perform  the  office  of  substantives, 
[and  are  used  as  such;  as  in  the  following  instances:  "The 

*  From  the  very  nature  of  time,  an  action  may  be  present  now,  it  may  kao* 
been  present  formerly,  or  it  may  be  presmt  at  some  future  yeriod— yet  who  ever 
Qjpposedt  that  the  present  of  the  indicative  denotes  no  time  ? 

Encyclopoedia  BritcanicO' 


TO  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

beginning;^^  "a  good  understanding;'^^  "excellent  writ- 
ing;^^  "The  chancellor's  being  attached  to  the  king  se- 
cured his  crown:"  "The  general's  having  failed  in  this 
enterprise  occasioned  his  dis^ace;"  < 'John's  having  been 
writing  a  long  time  had  wearied  him." 

That  the  words  in  italics  of  the  three  latter  examples, 
perform  the  office  of  substantives,  and  may  be  considered 
a^  such,  will  be  evident,  if  we  reflect,  that  the  first  of 
them  has  exactly,  the  same  meaning  and  construction  as, 
"The  chancellor's  attachment  to  the  king  secured  his 
crown;"  and  that  the  other  examples  will  bear  a  similar 
construction.  The  words,  being  attached,  govern  the  word 
chance^orh  in  the  possessive  case,  in  the  one  instance,  as 
clearly  as  attachment  governs  it  in  that  case,  in  the  other; 
and  it  is  only  substantives,  or  words  and  phrases  which 
operate  as  substantives,  that  govern  the  genitive  or  pos- 
sessive case. 

The  following  sentence  is  not  precisely  the  same  as  the 
above,  either  in  sense  or  construction,  though,  except  the 
genitive  case,  the  words  are  the  same;  "The  chancellor, 
being  attached  to  the  kingj  secured  his  crown."  In  the 
former,  the  words,  being  attached,  form  the  nominative 
case  to  the  verb,  and  are  stated  as  the  cause  of  the  effect; 
in  the  latter,  they  are  not  the  nominative  case,  and  make 
only  a  circumstance  to  chancellor,  which  is  the  proper 
nominative.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  add  anotner 
form  of  this  sentence,  by  which  tne  learner  may  better 
understand  the  peculiar  nature  and  form  of  each  of  these 
modes  of  expression:  "The  chancellor  being  attached  to 
the  king,  his  crown  was  secured."  This  constitutes  what 
*s  properly  called,  the  Case  Absolute. 

Section  4.    Remarks  on  the  Potential  Mood. 

That  the  Potential  Mood  should  be  separated  from  the 
subjunctive,  is  evident,  from  the  intricacy  and  confusion 
which  are  produced  by  their  being  blended  together,  and 
Irom  the  distinct  nature  of  the  two  moods;  the  former  of 
which  may  be  expressed  without  any  condition,  supposi- 
tion, &c.  as  will  appear  from  the  following  instances: 
"They  might  have  done  better;"  "We  7nay  always  iwat 
uprightly;"   "He  was  generous,  and  would  not  take  re- 


ETYMaLOGY.  71 

•  venge;-'  **We  should  resist  the  allurements  of  vice;"  "I 
I  could  formerly  indulge  myself  in  things,  of  which  I  can- 
not  now  think  but  with  pain." 

Some  Grammarians  have  supposed  that  the  Potential 
Mood,  as  distinguished  above  from  the  Subjunctive,  coin- 
cides with  the  Indicative.  But  as  the  latter  "simply  in- 
dicates or  declares  a  thing,"  it  is  manifest  that  the  for- 
mer, which  modifies  the  declaration,  and  introduces  an 
idea  materially  distinct  from  it,  must  be  considerably 
different.  '"I  can  walk,"  '*!  should  walk,"  appear  to  be 
so  essentially  distinct  from  the  simplicity  of,  "I  walk," 
*•!  walked,"  as  to  warrant  a  correspondent  distinction  of 
moods.  The  Imperative  and  Infinitive  Moods,  which  are 
allowed  to  retain  their  rank,  do  not  appear  to  contain 
such  strong  marks  of  disci'imination  from  the  Indicative^ 
fis  are  found  in  the  Potential  Mood. 

There  are  other  writers  on  this  subject,  who  exclude 
the  Potential  Mood  from  their  division,  because  it  is 
formed,  not  by  varying  the  principal  verb,  but  by  means 
of  the  auxiliary  verbs  may,  can,  might,  could,  would,  &:c.: 
but  if  we  recollect,  that  moods  are  used  "to  signify  various 
intentions  of  the  mind,  and  various  modincations  and 
circumstances  of  action,"  we  shall  perceive  that  those 
auxiliaries,  far  from  interfering  with  this  design,  do,  in 
the  clearest  manner,  support  and  exemplify  it.  On  the 
reason  alleged  by  these  writers,  the  greater  part  of  the 
^indicative  Mood  must  also,  be  excluded;  as  but  a  small 
part  of  it  is  conjugated  without  auxiliaries.  The  Subjunc- 
tive too  will  fare  no  better;  since  it  so  nearly  resembles  tli^ 
Indicative,  and  is  formed  by  means  of  conjunctions,  ex  * 
pressed  or  understood,  which  do  not  more  effectually  show 
the  varied  intentions  of  the  mind,  than  the  auxiliaries  do 
which  are  used  to  form  the  Potential  Mood. 

Some  writers  havfe  given  our  moods  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent than  we  have  assigned  to  them.  They  assert  that  the 
English  language  may  be  said,  without  any  great  impro- 
priety, to  have  as  many  moods  as  it  has  auxiliary  verbs: 
and  they  allege,  ift  support  of  their  opinion,  that  the  com 
pound  expression  which  they  nelp  to  form,  point  out  those 
various  dispositions  and  actions,  which,  in  other  languages. 
are  expressed  by  moods.  Tnis  would  be  to  multiply  tlie 
moods  without  advantage.  It  is,  however,  certain,  tliat  th* 


7£  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

conjugation  or  variation  of  verbs,  in  the  English  lan^age, 
is  effected,  almost  entirely,  by  the  means  of  auxiliaries. 
We  must,  therefore,  accommodate  ourselves  to  this  cir- 
cumstance; and  do  that  by  their  assistance,  which  has  been 
done  in  the  learned  languages,  (a  few  instances  to  the 
contrary  excepted,)  in  another  manner,  namely,  by  var^r- 
ing  the  form  of  the  verb  itself.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
necessary  to  set  proper  bounds  to  this  business,  so  as  not 
to  occasion  obscurity  and  perplexity,  when  we  mean  to  be 
simple  and  perspicuous.  Instead,  therefore,  of  making  a 
separate  mood  for  every  auxiliary  verb,  and  introducing 
moods  Interrogative,  Optative,  Promissive,  Hortative,  Fre- 
cative,  &c.  we  have  exhibited  such  only  as  are  obviously 
distinct;  and  which,  whilst  they  are  calculated  to  unfold 
and  display  the  subject  intelligibly  to  the  learner,  seem 
to  be  sufficient,  and  not  more  than  sufficient,  to  answer 
all  the  purposes  for  which  moods  were  introduced. 

From  Grammarians  who  form  their  ideas,  and  make 
their  decisions,  respecting  this  part  of  English  Grammar, 
on  the  principles  and  construction  of  languages  which,  in 
these  points,  do  not  suit  the  peculiar  nature  of  our  own, 
but  differ  considerably  from  it,  we  may  naturally  expect 
grammatical  schemes  that  are  not  very  perspicuous  nor 
perfectly  consistent,  and  which  will  tend  more  to  perplex 
than  inform  the  learner.  See  pages  76 — 78.  94 — 96, 
99—102.  185— -184. 

Sectiox  5.     Of  the  Tenses. 

^  Tense,  being  the  distinction  of  time,  might  seem  to 
admit  only  of  the  present,  past,  and  future;  but  to 
mark  it  more  accurately,  it  is  made  to  consist  of  six 
variationsjviz.  the  present,  the  imperfect,  the  per- 
T'ECT,  the  pluperfect,  and  the  first  and  second 

FUTURE    tenses. 

The  Present  Tense  represents  an  action  or  event, 
as  passing  at  the  time  in  which  it  is  mentioiicd:  as^ 
**I  rule;  I  am  ruled;  I  think;  I  fear/f 

The  .present  tense  likewise  expresses  a  character,  qua- 
lity, &c.  at  present  existing:  as,  "He  is  an  able  man;^' 
*'She  is  an  amiable  woman."  It  is  also  used  in  speaking 
pf  actioQB  continued.  ;rith  occa'sioual  intermissions,  to  the 


ETYMbtOGY.  <  ^> 

present  time:  as,  «He  frequentlj"  rides;"  <*He  walks  out 
every  morning;"  '*He  goes  into  the  country  every  sum- 
mer."    We  sometimes  apply  this  tense  even  to  persons  ^ 
lonff  since  dead:    as,  <*Seneca  reasons  and   moralizes 
well;"  *'Job  speaks  feelingly  of  his  afflictions." 

The  present  tense,  preceded  by  the  words,  wlieuy  before^ 
€ifter^  as  soon  as,  &c.  is  sometimes  used  to  point  out  the 
relative  time  of  a  future  action:  as,  '••^FAen  he  arrives  he 
will  hear  the  news;"  **He  will  hear  tlie  news  b'efore  he 
arrives,  or  as  soon  as  he  arrives,  or,  at  farthest,  soon 
after  he  arrives;"  '^The  more  she  improves,  the  more 
amiable  she  will  be." 

In  animated  historical  nari-ations,  this  tense  is  some- 
times substituted  for  the  imperfect  tense:  as,  "He  enterfi 
the  territory  of  the  peaceable  inhabitants;  he  fights  and 
conquers^  takes  an  immense  booty,  which  he  divider 
amongst  his  soldiers,  and  returns  home  to  enjoy  an  emptv 
triumph." 

J  The  Imperfect  Tense  represents  the  action  or  event, 
either  as  past  and  finished,  or  as  remaining  unfinished 
^t  a  certain  time  past:  as,  **I  loved  her  for  her  mo- 
desty and  virtue;"  <'They  were  travelling  post  when 
lie  met  them." 

The  Perfect  Tense  not  only  refers  to  what  is  pasu 
but  also  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present  time:  as, 
♦^I  have  finished  my  letter;"  '^I  have  seen  the  persoi^ 
that  was  i-ecommended  to  me.". 

In  the  former  example,  it  is  signified  that  the  finisliing 
of  the  letter,  though  past,  was  at  a  period  immediately, 
or  very  nearly,  preceding  the  present  time.  In  the  lat- 
ter instance,  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  person  mention- 
ed was  seen  by  the  speaker  a  lona;  or  short  time  before. 
The  meaning*^ is,  *'I  have  seen  him  sometime  in  tlie 
course  of  a  period  which  includes,  or  comes  to,  the  pre- 
sent time."  \Vhen  the  particular  time  of  anyocciirrencft 
js  specified,  as  prior  to  the  present  time,  this  tense  is  li^.t 
-used:  for  it  would  be  improper  to  STij,  *'I  have  seen  him  0^^. 
yesterday;"  or,  ''I  have  finished  my  work  last  week.— ' 
in  these  cases  ihe  imperfect  is  necessary:  as,  *'I  saw 
him  yesterday;"  "I  finished  my  work  last  week."  But 
wihen  we  speak  indefinitely  of  any  thing  past,  as  happen- 


T4  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

ing  or  not  happening  in  the  day,  year,  or  age,-  in  which 
we  mention  it,  the  perfect  must  be  employed:  as,  "L 
have  been  there  this  morning;"  "I  have  travelled  much 
this  year;"  "We  have  escaped  many  dangers  through 
life."  In  referring,  however,  to  such  a  division  of  the 
day  as  is  past  before  the  time  of  our  speaking,  we  use 
the  imperfect:  as,  ''They  came  home  early  this  morning;" 
*'He  zvas  with  them  at  three  o'clock  this  afternoon." 

The  perfect  tense,  and  the  imperfect  tense,  both  denote 
a  thing  that  is  past;  but  the  former  denotes  it  in  such  a 
manner,  that  there  is  still  actually  'remaining  some  part 
of  the  time  to  slide  away,  wherein  we  declare  the  thing 
has  been  done;  whereas  the  imperfect  denotes  the  thing 
or  action  past,  in  such  a  manner,  that  nothing  remains  oJ" 
that  time  m  which  it  was  done.  If  we  speak  of  the  pre- 
sent centurjr,  we  say,  "Philosophers  have  made  great 
discoveries  in  the  present  century:"  but  if  we  speak  of 
the  last  century,  we  say,  "Philosophers  made  great  dis- 
coveries in  the  last  century."  ''He  has  been  much  afflictec^ 
this  year;"  "I  have  this  week  read  the  king's  proclama- 
tion;" "I  have  heard  great  news  this  morning."  In  these 
instances,  "He  has  been,'^  "I  have  read,'''  and  '^heard,'' 
denote  things  that  are  past;  but  they  occurred  in  thi^ 
year,  in  this  week,  and  to-day;  and  still  there  remains  a 
part  of  this  year,  week,  and  day,  v/hereof  I  speak. 

In  general,  the  perfect  tense  may  be  applied  v/hereve^ 
the  action  is  connected  with  the  present  time,  by  the  ac- 
tual existence,  either  of  the  author,  or  of  the  work, 
thou^li  it  may  have  been  performed  many  centuries  ago; 
but  if  neither  the  author  nor  the  work  now  remains,  ii 
cannot  be  used.  We  may  say,  "Cicero  has  ivritten  ora- 
tions;" but  we  cannot  say,  "Cicero  has  written  poems;" 
because  the  orations  are  in  being,  but  the  poems  are  lost. 
Speaking  of  Priests  in  general,  we  may  say,  "They  have 
in  all  a^es  claimed  great  powers;"  because  the  general 
order  ot  the  priesthood  still  exists:  but  if  we  speak  of 
the  Druids,  as  any  particular  order  of  priests,  which 
does  not  now  exist,  we  cannot  use  this  tense.  We  can- 
not say,  "The  Druid  priests  have  claimed  great  powers;" 
but  must  say,  "The  Druid  priests  claimed  great  powei^sf*' 


EtTMOLOGY.  73 

because  that  order  is  now  totally  extinct.  See  Pigkbovrn*^ 
on  the  English  Verb.  i 

•  The  Pluperfect  Tense  represents  a  thing,  not  only 
as  past,  but  also  as  prior  to  some  other  point  of  time 
specified  in  the  sentence:  as,  *'I  had  finished  my  let- 
ter before  he  arrived." 

The  First  Future  Tense  represents  the  action  as  yet 
to  come,  either  with  or  without  respect  to  the  precise 
time:  as,  '^The  sun  will  rise  to-morrow;"  ^'1  shall 
see  them  again." 

The  Second  Future  intimates  that  the  action  will 

be  fully  accomplished,  at  or  before  the  time  of  another" 

future  action  or  event:  as,  ^'I  sliall  have  dined  at  one 

o'clock;"  **The  two  houses  will  have  finished  their 

'''business,  when  the  king  comes  to  prorogue  them."^ 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  thjf  subjunctive  mood,  the 
event  being  spoken  of  under  a  condition  or  supposition,  or 
in  the  form  of  a  wish,  and  therefore  as  doubtful  and  con- 
tingent, the  verb  itself  in  the  present,  and  the  auxiliary 
both  of  the  present  and  past  imperfect  times,  often  carry 
'  with  tliem  somewhat  of  a  future  sense:  as,  '*If  he  come 
to-morrow,  I  may  speak  to  him;"  ''If  he  should,  or 
would  come  to-morrow,  I  might,  would,  couhl,  or  should 
speak  to  him.^'  Observe  also,  that  the  auxiliary  should 
and  would,  in  the  imperfect  times,  are  used  to  express 
the  present  and  future  as  well  as  the  past:  as,  "It  is  my 
desire,  that  he  should,  or  would,  come  now,  or  to-mor- 
row;" as  well  as,  '*It  was  my  desire,  that  he  should  or- 
would  come  yesterday."  So  that  in  this  mood  the  precise 
time  of  the  verb  is  very  much  determined  by  the  nature 
and  drift  of  the  sentence. 

The  present,  past,  and  future  tenses,  may  be  used 
either  definitely  or  indefinitely,  both  with  respecti;o  time 
and  action.  When  they  denote  customs  or  habits,  and  not 
individual  acts,  they  are  applied. indefinitely:  as,  ''¥ir- 
ine  promotes  happiness;"  "-The  olcl  Romans  governed  bv 
benefits  more  than  by  fear;"  <'I  shall  hereafter  emplou 
my  time  more  usefully."     In  these  examples,  the  worcl.^ 

*See  an  account  of  the  simple  and  compound  tenses,  at  page  91. 


76  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

pro7nofe$,  governed,  and  shall  employ^  are  used  indefi- 
nitely,  both  in  regard  to  action  and  time;  for  they  are  not 
confined  to  individual  actions,  nor  to  any  precise  points 
of  present,  past,  or  future  time.  When  they  are  applied 
to  signify  jjarticular  actions,  and  to  ascertain  the  precise 
points  of  time  to  which  they  are  confined,  they  are  used 
definitely;  as  in  the  following  instances.  "My  brother 
is  writing ;^^  ''He  built  the  house  last  summer,  but  did 
not  inhabit  it  till  yesterday."  "He  iviU  write  another 
letter  to-morrow." 

The  different  tenses  also  represent  an  action  as  complete 
or  perfect,  or  as  incomplete  or  imjicrj'ect.  In  the  phrases, 
"I  am  writing,"  *^1  was  writing,"  ''I  shall  be  writing," 
imperfect,  unfinished  actions  are  signified.  But  the  loK 
lowing  examples,  ''I  wrote,"  *'I  have  written,"  "I  had, 
written,"  ''I  shall  have  written,"  all  denote  complete, 
perfect  action.  ^ 

From  the   preceding  representation  of  the   different 
tenses,  it  appears,  that  each  of  them  h^s  its  distinct  and 
peculiar  province;  and  that  though  som^  of  them  may 
sometimes  be  used  proniiscuously,  or  substituted  one  for  . 
another,  in  cases  wnere  great  accuracy  is  not  required, 
yet  there  is  a  real  and  essential  difference  in  their  mean- 
mg. — It  is  also  evident,  that  the  English  language  contains  . 
the  six  tenses  which  we  have  enumerated.    Grammarians 
Avho  limit  the  number  to  two,  or  at  most  to  three,  name- 
ly, the  present,  the  imperfect,  and  the  future,  do  not  re-  ' 
fleet  that  the  English  verb  is  mostly  composed  of  principal  i 
and  auxiliary;  and  that  these  several  parts  constitute  one  'j 
;verb.     Either  tlie  English  language  has  no  regular  future 
tense,  or  its  future  is  composed  of  the  auxiliary  and  the 
principal  verb.     If  the  latter  be  admitted,  then  the  auxi-  \ 
liary  and  principal  united,   constitute  a  tense,  in  one 
instance;  and,  from  reason  and  analogy,  may  doubtless  ^ 
do  so,  in  others,  in  which  minuter  divisions  of  time  are  ] 
necessary,  or  useful.     What  reason  can  be   assigned  for  5 
not  considering  this  case  as  other  cases,  in  which  a  whole  ^ 
is  regarded  as  composed  of  several  parts,  or  of  principal 
and  adjuncts?  There  is  nothing  heterogeneous  in  the  parts: 
and   precedent,  analogy,   utility,   and   even   necessity 
authorize  the  union. 


ETYMOLOGY.  ^        77 

In  support  of  this  opinion,  we  have  the  authority  of 
eminent  grammarians;  in  particular,  that  of  Dr.  Beattie. 
**Some  writers,''  says  the  Doctor,  *'will  not  allow  any 
thing  to  be  a  tense,  but  what  in  one  inflected  word,  ex- 
presses an  affirmation  with  time;  for  that  those  parts  of 
the  verb  are  not  properly  called  tenses,  which  assume 
that  appearance,  by  means  of  auxiliary  words.  At  this 
rate,  we  should  have,  in  English,  two  tenses  only,  the 
present  and  the  past  in  the  active  verb,  and  in  the  passive 
no  tenses  at  all.  But  this  is  a  needless  nicety;  and,  if  . 
adopted,  would  introduce  confusion  into  the  grammatical 
art.  If  amaveram  be  a  tense,  why  should  not  amalUH 
fiieram?  If  /  heard  be  a  tense,  /  did  hear,  I  have  heard, 
and  /  shall  hear,  must  be  equally  entitled  to  that  appel- 
lation." A 

The  prope?  form  of  a  tense,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
tongues,  is  certainly  that  which  it  has  in  the  grammars  of 
those  languages.  But  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  grammars, 
we  uniformly  find,  that  some  of  the  tenses  are  formed  by 
variations  of  the  principal  verb;  and  others,  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  helping  verb.  It  is,  therefore,  indisputable, 
that  the  principal  verb,  or  rather  its  participle,  and  an 
auxiliary,  constitute  a  regular  tense  in  the  Greek  and 
I^atin  languages.  This  point  being  established,  we  may, 
doubtless,  apply  it  to  English  verbs;  and  extend  the 
principle  as  far  as  convenience,  and  the  idiom  of  o\ir 
language  require. 

If  it  should  be  said,  that,  on  the  same  ground  that  a  par- 
ticiple and  auxiliary  are  allowed  to  form  a  tense,  and  the 
verb  is  to  be  conjugated  accordingly,  the  English  noun 
and  pronoun  ought  to  be  declined  at  large,  with  articles 
and  prepositions;  we  must  object  to  the  inference.  Such 
a  mode  of  declension  is  not  adapted  to  our  language. 
This  we  think  has  been  already  proved.*  It  is  also  con- 
fessedly inapplicable  to  the  learned  languages.  Where 
then  is  the  grammatical  inconsistency^  or  the  want  of 
conformity  to  the  principles  of  analogy,  iri  making  some 
tenses  of  the  English  verb  to  consist  of  principal  and 
auxiliary;  and  the  cases  of  English  nouns,  chiefly  in 
their  termination?  The  argument  from  analogy,  instead 

♦  See  p»ge  50. 
G2 


TB  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK* 

of  militating  against  us,  appears  to  confirm  and  establish 
our  position.  See  pages  70—72.  94—96.  98—102. 
183—184.  ^^ 

We  shall  close  these  remarks  on  the  tenses,  with  a  few 
observations  extracted  from  the  ExVcyclop^dia  Britan- 
NicA.  Thej  are  worth  the  student's  attention,  as  a  part 
of  them  applies,  not  only  to  our  views  of  the  tenses,  but 
to  many  otlier  parts  of  the  work. — "Harris  (by  way  of 
hypothesis)  has  enumerated  no  fewer  than  twelve  tenses. 
Of  this  enumeration  we  can  by  no  means  approve:  for, 
without  entering  into  a  minute  examination  of  it,  nothin* 
can  be  more  obvious,  than  that  his  inceptive  present,  '*!£ 
am  going  to  write,"  is  a  future  tense;  and  his  completive 
present,  "\  have  written,"  a  past  tei^e.  But,  as  was 
before  observed  of  the  classification  ot^m;ds,  we  cannot 
help  being  of  opinion,  that,  to  take  the- tenses  as  they  are. 
commonly  received,  and  endeavour  to  ascertain  their 
nature  and  their  difterence«,  is  a  much  more  useful  exer- 
cise, as  well  as  more  proper  for  a  work  of  this  kind,  than 
to  raise,  as  might  easily  be  raised,  new  theories  cm  the 
subject."* 


Section  6.    The  Conjugation,  of  the  ^uociliary  Verbs 
TO  HAVE  and  to  be. 

•  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb,  is  the  regular  combina- 
tion and  arrangement  of  its  several  numbers,  persons, 
moods,  and  tenses. 

The  Conjugation  of  an  active  verb  is  styled  the 
ACTiyE   voice;    and    that  of  a  passive  verb,  the 

PASSIVE    VOICE. 

The  auxiliary  and  active  verb  to  have,  is  conju- 
gated in  the  following  manner.j 

*The  following  criticism  affords  an  additional  support  to  the  author's  system  of 
tbe  tenses,  &c. 

"  Under  the  lietid  of  Etymology,  the  author  of  this  Grammar  judiciously  adhereW 
to  the  natural  simplicity  of  the  English  language,  without  embarrassing  the.' 
learner  with  distinctions  peculiar  to  the  Latin  tongue.  The  difficult  sulyect  of 
the  Tenses,  is  clearly  explained  ;  and  with  less  encumbrance  of  technical  phra- 
aeology,  than  in  most  oth^r  grammars."— -Snaij/ticoi  Review. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

TO  HAVE. 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense, 

Singular. 

Plural. 

i. 

Per5. 1  have. 

1.  We  have. 

2. 

Bers.  Thou  hast. 

2.  Ye  or  you  have> 

3. 

Pers.  He,  she, 
hath  or  has. 

or  it  > 

5.  They  have » 

Imperfect  Tense.*' 

lingular. 

Plural. 

i . 

1  had.* 

1.  We  had. 

2. 

Thou  had  St. 

2.  Ye  or  you  had. 

1. 

He,  &c.  had. 

3.  They  had. 

Perfeci 

I  Tense,"" 

-ingular. 

Plural. 

). 

1  have  had. 

1.  We  have  had. 

'2. 

Thou  hast  had. 

£.  Ye  or  you  have  had. 
3.  They  have  had. 

3. 

He  has  had. 

Pluperfect  Tense,'' 

Singular. 

Plui-al. 

1. 

I  had  had. 

1.  We  had  had. 

2. 

Thou  had«t  had. 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  had. 

3. 

He  had  had. 

3.  They  had  had. 

First  Future  Tense, 

79 


Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have.  1*  We  shall  or  will  have. 

%  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have.  2.  Ye  oryou  shall  or  will  have. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have.  3.  They  shall  or  will  have. 

*  The  terms  which  we  have  adopted,  to  designate  the  three  past  tenses,  may 
not  be  exactly  significant  of  their  nature  and  distinctions.  But  as  they  are  used 
by  grammarians  in  general,  and  have  an  established  autlterity;  and,  especially, 
as  the  meaning  attached  to  each  of  them,  and  their  difftreirt  signiticationg,  have 
been  carefully  explained;  we  presume  that  no  solid  objtKLion  can  be  made  to  the 
use  of  terms  so  generally  approved,  and  so  explicitly  defined.  See  page  78  anii 
SO.  We  are  supported  in  these  sentiments,  by  the  authority  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
dee  Itoe  first  note  in  his  "Grammar  of  the  English  Tongue,"  prefixed  to  liis 
dictionary.  If,  however,  any  teachers  should  think  it  warrantable  to  change  thn 
established  names,  they  cannot  perhaps  find  any  more  appropriate,  than  the 
ierma  first  preieHt,  second  preterit,  and  tkird  preterit.— Bee  tire  Octavo  Oiam- 


so  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Second  Future  Tense. 

Singii'Ar.  Plural 

1.  I  shall  have  had.  1.  We  shall  have  had. 

S.  Thou  wilt  have  had.  2:  Ye  or  you  will  have  had, 

3.  He  will  have  had.  3.  They  w '!  have  Itad. 

Imperative  Mood. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Let  me  have.  1.  Let  us  have. 

2.  Have,  or  have  thou,  or  Q.  Have,  or  have  ye,  or  do 
do  thou  have.  ye  or  you  have. 

3.  Let  him  have.  3.  Let  them  have.Jy 

The  imperative  mood  is  not  strictly  entitled  to  three 
|)€rsons.  The  command  is  always  addressed  to  the  second 
person,  not  to  the  first  or  third.  For  when  we  say,  "Let 
me  have,"  ''Let  him,  or  let  them  have,"  the  meaning 
and  construction  are,  do  thou,  or  do  ye,  let  me,  him,  or 
rhem  have.  In  philosophical  strictness,  both  number  and 
])erson  mi^ht  be  entirely  excluded  from  every  verb. 
Tliey  are,  m  fact,  the  properties  of  substantives,  not  a 
})art  of  the  essence  of  a  verb.  Even  the  name  of  the 
imperative  mood,  does  not  always  correspond  to  its  nature: 
for  it  sometimes  petitions  as  well  as  commands.  But,  with" 
respect,  to  all  these  points,  the  practice  of  our  gramma- 
rians is  so  uniformly  fixed,  and  so  analogous  to  the  lan- 
guages, ancient  and  modern,  which  our  youth  have  to 
study,  that  it  would  be  an  unwarrantable  degree  of  inno- 
vation, to  deviate  from  the  Established  terms  and  arrange- 
ments. See  the  advertisment  at  the  end  of  the  introduc- 
tion, page  7;  and  the  quotation  from  the  EncyclopsedJa 
Britannica,  page  78. 

Potential  Mood. 

Present   Tense. 
Singular.  ^  Plural, 

1. 1  may  or  can -have,  1.  We  may  or  can  have. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have.  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have. 

3.  He  may  or  ean  have.   .      3.  They  may  or  can  have.-   ^ 

*  If  such  sentences  sbould  be  rigorously  examined,  the  Imperative  w01  app-; 
tj  consfet  merely  In  the  word  let.    See  Parsing,  p.  203. 


ETYMOLOGY.  Si 

Imperfett  Tense, 

Siiigrular.  Plural. 

I.  I  miffht, could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would, 

should  have.  or  should  have. 

^l.  Thou  mightat,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,orshouldsthave.       would,  or  should  have. 

He  mi^ht,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
■r  should  have.  or  should  have. 

Perfect  Tense.  ^ 

Singular.  Plural. 

1 .  I  may  or  can  have  had.    1 .  We  may  or  can  have  had. 

2.  Thou. mayst  or  canst  have  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can 
had.  have  had.. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  had.  3.  They  may  or  can  have  had 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

■lin^lar.  Plural. 

J.  I  might,  could,  would, or  1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have  had.  or  should  have  had. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  would,  or  should  have 
had.  had. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  had.  or  should  have  had.* 

Sulijunctive  Mood, 

Present  Tense. 

-  iagular.  Plural. 

J.  If  1  have.  1.  If  we  have. 

2.  If  thou  have.t  2.  If  ye  or  you  have. 

3.  If  he  have.t  3.  If  they  have. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  are,  iri 
every  respect,  similar  to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the 

'*  Shall  and  will    when  they  denote  inclination,  resoluticm,  promise,  may  be 

considered,  as  wfcil  as  tlicir  relarions  Mowid  and  -toould,  as  iMflonging  to  tlje  poten- 

:  .ood      But  as  they  generally  signify  futurity,  they  have  been  appropriated, 

pino  verbs,  to  the  foimaiion  of  the  future  tenses  of  the  indicative  and  sub- 

ive  mooo  ,. 

t  GranimaM.in?.  in  ^eripral,  conjugate  the  present  of  the  auxijiary,  ln'thi:> 

manner.    But  we  preatime  that^is  is  tlie  form  of  the  verb,  considered  as  Ci 

principal,  not  as  an  auzdiary  <W».    See  page  18:3,  Note  5. 


3^  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

indicative  mood;*  with  the  addition  to  the  verb,  of  aeon* 
junction,  expressed  or  impiiied,  denoting  a  condition,  mo- 
tive, wish,  supposition,  &c.  It  will  be  proper  to  direct 
the  learner  to  repeat  all  the  tenses  of  this  mood,  with  a 
conjunction  prefixed  to  each  of  them.  See,  on  this  sub- 
ject, the  observations  at  page  96;  and  the  notes  on  the 
nineteenth  rule  of  syntax. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
PRESENT.    To  have.  perfect.    To  have  had. 

Participles, 
present  or  active.     Having. 
^•J  perfect.  Had. 

'j,  compound  PERFECT.    Having  had.  % 

As  the  subjunctive  mood,  in  English,  has  no*  variatioOy 
in  the  form  of  the  verb,  from  the  indicative,  (except  in  the 
present  tense,  and  the  second  future  tense,  of  verbs  gene- 
rally, and  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  of  the  verb  to 
be,)  it  would  be  superfluous  to  conjugate  it  in  this  work, 
through  every  tense.  But  all  the  other  mood--  and  tenses 
of  the  verbs,  both  in  the  active  and  passive  voices,  are 
conjugated  at  large,  that  the  learners  may  have  no  doubts 
or  misapprehensions  respecting  their  particular  forms. 
They  to  whom  the  subject  of  grammar  is  entirely  new, 
and  young  persons  especially,  are  much  more  readily  and 
effectually  mstructed,  by  seeing  the  parts  of  a  subject  so 
essential  as  the  verb,  unfolded  and  spread  before  them, 
in  all  their  varieties,  than  by  being  generally  and  curso- 
rily informed  of  the  manner  in  which  they  may  be  exhi- 
bited. The  time  employed  by  the  scholars,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  display  oi  the  verbs,  h  of  small  moment 
cbmpared  with  the  advantages  which  they  will  probably 
derive  from  the  plan. 

It  may  not,  however,  be  generally  proper  for  young 
persons  beginning  tlie  study  of  grammar,  to  commit  to 
memory  all  the  tenses  of  the  verbs.  If  the  simple  tenses, 
namely,  the  present  and  the  imperfect,  together  with  the 

*  Except  that  the  second  and  third  persons,  singular  and  plural,  of  the  seconcKl 
future  tense,  require  ihe  auxiliary  shall,  shall,  instead  of  wilt,  will.    Thus,  "He 
will  have  completed  the  work  by  midsunnner,"  is  the  indicative  form;  but  tlie 
subjunctive  is,  "If  he  shall  have  completed  tlie  .work  by  midsunmier." 


ETYMOLOGY.  8S 

first  future  tense,  should,  in  the  first  insfance,  be  com- 
mitted to  memory,  and  the  rest  ca«efully  perused  and 
explained,  the  business  will  not  be  tedious  to  the  scholars, 
and  their  progress  will  be  rendered  more  obvious  and 
pleasing. .  The  general  view  of  the  subjecst,  thus  acquired 
and  impressed,  may  afterwards  be  extended  with  ease 
and  advantage. 

It  appears  to  be  proper,  for  the  information  of  the 
learners,  to  make  a  few  observations  in  this  pKace,  on 
some  of  the  tenses,  &:c.  The  first  is,  that, in  the  poten- 
tial mood,  some  grammarians  confound  the  present  with 
the  imperfect  tense;  and  the  perfect  with  the  pluperfect. 
But  that  they  are  really  distinct,  and  have  an  appropriate 
reference  to  time,  correspondent  to  the  definitions  of 
those  tenses,  will  appear  from  a  few  examples:  "I  wished 
him  to  stay,  but  he  would  not;"  "I  could  not  accomplish 
the  business  in  time;"  "It  was  im^  direction  that  he 
should  submit;"  "He  was  ill^  but  I  thought  he  might 
live;"  **I  inay  have  misunderstood  him;"  "He  cannot  have 
deceived  me;"  "He  might  have  finished  the  work  soonei", 
but  he  could  not  have  done  it  better." — It  must,  however, 
be  admitted,  that,  on  some  occasions,  the  auxiliaries  might, 
could,  would,  and  should,  refer  also  to  present  and  to 
future  time.     See  page  75. 

The  next  remark  is,  that  the  auxiliary  loill,  in  the  first 
person  singular  and  plural  of  the  second  future  tense; 
and  the  auxiliary  shall,  in  the  second  and  third  persons  ^i' 
that  tense,  in  the  indicative  mood,  appear  to  be  incor- 
rectly applied.  The  impropriety  of  such  associations 
may  be  inferred  from  a  few  examples:  "I  will  have  had 
previous  notice,  whenever  the  event  happens;"  '^Thou 
shalt  have  served  thy  apprenticeship  berore  the  end  of 
the  year;"  "He  shall  have  completed  his  business  when 
the  messenger  arrives."  **I  shall  have  had;  thou  ivilt 
have  served;  he  will  have  completed,"  &c.  would  havt' 
been  correct  and  applicable.  The  peculiar  import  of 
these  auxiliaries,  as  explained  in  page  90,  under  section 
7,  seems  to  account  for  their  impropriety  in  the  applica 
tions  just  mentioned. 

Some  writers  on  Grammar  object  to  the  pVopriety  of  ad- 
mitting the  second  future,  in  both  the  indicative  and  sub 
junctive  moods:  but  that  thi«  tense  is  applicable  to^both 


^4  ENGLISH  GRAMMA  P. 

>noods,  will  be  manifest  from  the  following  example 
"John  "will  have  earned  his  wages  the  next  new-year" 
day,"  is  a  simple  declaration,  and  therefore  in  the  indi 
cative  mood:  **If  he  shall  have  finished  his  work  when 
the  bell  rin^s,  he.  will  be  entitled  to  tlie  reward,"  is  con- 
ditional and  contingent,  and  is  therefore  in  the  subjunc 
tive  mood. 

We  shall  conclude  these  detached  observations,  with 
one  remark  which  may  be  useful  to  the  young  scholar, 
namely,  that  as  the  indicative  mood  is  converted  into  the 
subjunctive,  by  the  expression  of  a  condition,  motive. 
wish,   supposition,  &c.  being  superadded    to  it;   so  tht^ 
potential  mood  may,  in  like  manner,  be  turned  "into  tl); 
subjunctive;  as  will   be  seen  in  the  following  example^ 
**If  I  could  deceive  him,  I  should  abhor  it;"  ''Thoua' 
he  should  increase  in  wealth,  he  would  not  be  charit;^ 
ble;"  ''Even  in  prosperity'  he  would  gain  no  esteem,  uji 
less  he  should  conduct  lumself  better." 

*  The  auxiliary  and  neuter  verb  To  be.  is  conjugater 
^s  folio v\'sr 

TO  BE. 

Indicative  JNIood. 

Present  Tense. 
•  •  Siugular.  Plnra!. 

1.  I  am.  ].  We  are. 

2.  Thou  art.  2.  Ye  or  you  are. 
5.  He,  she,  or  \i  i>.               ?->.  They  are. 

Iinperfcct  Tense. 
Singular.  Plurul. 

1.  I  was.  1.  We  were. 

2.  Thou  wast.  2.  Ye  or  you  were 

3.  He  was.  3.  They  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  .      Plural. 

1.  I  have  been.  1.  We  have  been. 

%  Thou  hast  been.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  been*    < 

2.  He  hath  or  has  be«,n.       %.  They  have  been.         ^  ' 


ETYMOLOGY.  85 

Pliqyerfect    Tense, 


lingular.  Plural. 

A.  I  had  been. .  1.  We  had  been. 

2%.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.  Ye  or  jou  had  been. 

""'   He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

First  Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1  shall  or  will  be.  1.  We  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  be. 
;>.  He  shall  or  will  be.  .     3,  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Second  Futitre  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.1  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  liave  been. 

2.  Thou  wdlt  have  been.  2.  Ye  or  you  will  havebeeir. 

3.  He  will  have  been.  ,S.  Thev  \\  ill  have  been. 


ImperatiTe  Moo^.; 

Sijigular.  PluraL 

1.  Let  me  be.  t.  Let  us  be. 

2.  Be  thou  or  do  tl-iou  be.  2.  Be  ye  or  you,  or  do  ye  b\! 

3.  I^et  him  be.  ,  2.  Let  tlieni  b^-^.' 

Potential  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 

?!in2^ular-  Plural. 

1.  -I  may  or  can  be.  j.  We  may  o/  ,  ..w  uc 

^  Thou  mayst  or  canst  be.  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be. 

•".  He  may  or  can  be.  3.  They  may  or  can  be. 

Imperfect   Tense. 

>ingular.  Plunii. 

.  1  miicht,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  mijrht,  could,  wouhi. 
^hfiuld  he.  or  should  be. 

Thou    mij^htst,    couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  mi<:;]it.  could, 
■  oiildst,  or  shouldst  be.  would,  or  should  be. 

'le  mi2;ht.  could,  would,  ^,.  Tliey       might,      cdtild^^ 
shouUl  be.  ^Mmld.o/*  shouhi  be, 

U 


^6  ENGLISH  GBAMMAR* 

Perfect  Tense*  % 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  orcan  have  been.  1 .  We  may  or  can  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can 
been,  have  been. 

3.  He    may    or    can    have  3.  They  may  or  can  have 
been.  been. 

Pluperfect   Tense. 

Si9*ular".  Plural.                                     ^ 

1.  I  mi^ht,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would,' 

shoum  have  been.  or  should  have  been. 

9..  Thou    mightst,    couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could,"^ 

wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  would,    or    should   have 

been.  been. 

3.  He  mi^ht,  could,  would,  3.  They  mi^ht, could,  would. 

or  should  have  been.  or  should  have  been. 

Subjunctive  Mood. 
Present   Tense. 

Singular  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be.  1.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.  If  ye  or  you  be. 

3.  If  he  be.  3.  If  they  be. 

Imperfect  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were.  1.  If  we  were. 

-2.  If  thou  wert.  2.  If  ye  or  you  were. 

3.  If  he  were.  3.  If  they  were. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood  are,  in  general, 
similar  to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  Indicative 
ttiood.     See  pages  82,  94,  95,  and  the  notes  under  thei 
laineteenth  rule  of  Syntax. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
Present  Tense,    To  be.         Perfect.    To  have  .b€eii. 

Participles. 
Present.    Being.  Perfect.    Been%- 

Qonxpound  Perfect.  Having  beeiK    7 


KTYMOLOGT.  oT 

Section  7.  The  Auxiliary  Verbs  conjugated  in  their 
simple  form;  with  observations  on  threir  peculiar  nature 
and  force. 

The  learner  will  perceive  that  the  preceding  anxitiary 
verts,  to  have  and  to  ic,  could  not  be  conjugated  through 
all  the  mooils  and  tenses,  without  the  help  of  other  auxi- 
liary verbs;  namely,  mai/,can,will^  shall,  and  their  vari- 
ations. That  auxiliary  verbs,  in  their  simple  state,  and 
unassisted  by  others,  are  of  a  very  limited  extent;  and' 
that  they  are  chiefly  useful,  in  the  aid  which  they  afford 
in  conjugating  the  principal  verbs;  will  clearly  appear  to 
the  scholar,  by  a  distinct  conjugation  of  eacli  of  them, 
uncombined  with  any  other,  jf hey  are  exhibited  for  his  • 
inspection;  not  to  be  committed  to  memory. 

TO  HAVE,  j 

Present  Tense, 

Sing,  1. 1  have.     2.  Thou  hast.         3.  He  hath  or  ha&. 
Plur.  1 .  We  have.  2.  Ye  or  you  have.  3.  They  have. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Sing.  1.  I  had.      2.  Thou  hadst.       3.  He  had. 
Plur.  1.  We  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  had.  3.  They  had. 

Perfect.    I  have  had,  &c.     Pluperfect.    I  had  had,  &c. 

Participles. 

Present.    Having.  Perfect.    Had. 

TO  BE. 

Present  Tense, 

Sing.  1.  I  am.        2.  Thou  art.  3.  He  is. 

Plur.  1.  We  are.  2.  Ye  or  you  are.  3.  They  are. 

Imperfect   Tense, 

Sing.  1. 1  was.       2.  Thou  wast.        3.  He  was. 
Plur.  1.  We  were.  2.  Ye  or  you  were.  3.  They  were. 

Participles. 

Present.    Being.  Perfect.     Been. 


38 


ipfGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


SHALL. 

Present  Tense. 

Sing, 
Plun 

!.  IshalL^ 
1.  We  shall. 

2.  Tiiou  shalt. 
►  2.  Ye  or  you  slvall. 

Imperfect   Teiisie. 

3.  He  shalL 
3.  They  shalL 

Sing.  ] 
Plur.  1 

[.I  should.  ^ 
.  Wesliould. 

2.  Thou  sliouldst. 
►  2.  Yearvousliould, 

niLi^ 

Present   Tense. 

3.  He  should. 
.  3.  They  should. 

Plur.  : 

I.  I  will. 
1.  We  will. 

2.  Thou  wilt. 
2.  Ye  ar  you  will. 

Imperfect  Tense  i  \ 

3.  He  will. 
3.  They  wilL 

Sing.  ] 
Plur.  1 

.  I  would. 
.We  would. 

2.  Thou  \^^uldst. 
►  2.  Ye  or  you  would. 

MAY. 

Present  Tense 

3.  He  would. 
3*  Thfey  woulcL 

Sing.  1 
Plur.  1 

.  I  may. 
\.  We  may. 

2.  Thou^  may^. 
2;,  Ye  oryou  may. 

3.  He  may. 
3.  They  may. 

Sing.  1. 1  might. 
J'lur.  1.  W'emiirht. 


Smg.  1.  1  cau. 


*3r 


Pluf.  1.  We  can. 


Sim 


I  could. 


'Mur.  1.  We  could. 


Imperfect  Tense. 

2.  Thou  mightst. 
2.  Ye  oryou  miglit. 

CAN. 

Present  T^nse. 

2..  Thou  canst. 
2.  Ye  or  you, can. 

Imperfect  Tense.. 

2.  Tliou  couldst. 
2.  Ye  or  you  could. 


He  might. 
Tliey  might, 


3.  He  can. 
3.  Tliey  can. 


3.  He  could. 
3.  They  could. 


*  Shall  is  here  properly  useil,^  the  present  tense,  having  the  same  analogy  Vc 
>huuld  Uiai  can  has  to  couid,  miiy  to  mi^hu  aaAtciU  to  zcov.ld. 


-  ETYMOLOGY.  8^ 

TO  DO. 

Present  Tense, 

Sing,  1.  1  do.        2.  Thou  dost.         3.  He  doth  or  does, 
Plur.   1.  We  do.   2.  Ye  or  jou  do.    3.  They  do. 

Imperfect  Tense, 

Sing,  1.  I  did.       2.  Thou  didst.        3.  He  did 
Plur.  1.  We  did.  2-  Ye  or  you  did.    3.  They  did. 

Participles. 
Present,    Doing.  Perfect,     Done. 

The  verbs  have^  be,  will,  and  do,  when  they  are  uncon- 
nected with  a  principal  verb,  expressed  or  understood, 
are  not  auxiliaries,  but  principal  verbs:  as,  "We  have 
enough;"  '*I  «m  gratefuU"  *'He  ivills  it  to  be  so;" 
"They  do  as  they  please."  In  this  view,  they  also  have 
their  auxiliaries:  as,  '•!  shall  have  enough;"  "I  will  be 
grateful,"  &c. 

The  peculiar  force  of  the  several  auxiliaries  will  appear 
from  the  following  account  of  them. 

Do  and  did  mark  the  action  itsel  f,  or  the  time  of  it,  with 
gre  vCer  energy  and  positiveness:  as,  ''I  do  speak  truth;" 
•'•I  did  respect  him;"  "Here  am  I,  for  thou  didst  call  me." 
They  are  of  great  use  in  negative  sentences:  as,  "I  do 
not  fear;"  '*I  did  ?iot  write."  They  are  almost  univer- 
sally employed  in  asking  questions:  as,  ''Does  he  learnr" 
''Did  he  not  write?"  They  sometimes  also  supply  the 
place  of  another  verb,  and  make  the  repetition  of  it,  in 
the  same,  or  a  subsequent  sentence,  unnecessary:  as> 
^•You  attend  not  to  your  studies  as  he  c/oes/"  (i.  e.  as  he 
attends,  &c.)  *'I  shall  come  if  I  can;  but  if  I  d&  noty 
please  to  excuse  me;"  (i.  e.  if  I  come  not.) 

Let  not  only  expresses  permission,  but  entreating,  ex- 
horting, coramanaing:  as,  ''Let  us  know  the  truth;" 
•'Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous;"  "Let  not  thy 
heart  be  too  much  elated  with  success;"  **Let  thy  in- 
clination submit  to  thy  ditty." 

May  and  might  express  the  possibility  or  liberty  of 
Awng  a  thing;  can  and  could,  the  power:  as,  "It  may  taiti;" 
'*I  may  write  or  read:"  **He  might  have  improved-  n^ore. 
H2 


90  EKGLISH  GRAMMAIf* 

than  he  hasj'^  "He  can  write  much  better  than  he  couftt 
last  year." 

must  is  sometimes  called  in  for  a  helper,  and  denotes 
necessity:  as,  "We  must  speak  the  truth,  whenever  We 
do  speaK,  and  we  must  not  prevaricate." 

Will,  in  the  first  person  singular  and  plural,  intimates 
resolution  and  promising;  in  tlie  second  and  third  person, 
only  foretels:  as, "I  will  reward  the  good,  and  will  punish 
fhe  wicked;"  "We  will  remember  benefits,  and  be  grate- 
ful;" "Thou  wilt,  or  he  will,  repent  of  that  folly;"  "You 
or  they  will  have  a  pleasant  walk." 
.  Shall,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  first  person,  simply  fore 
tels;  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  promises,  commands, 
or  threatens:  as,  "I  shall  go  abroad;"  "We  shall  dine 
at  home;"  "Thoa  shalt,  or  you  shall,  inherit  the  land:" 
"Ye  shall  do  justice,  and  love  mercy;"  ^^They  shall  ac- 
count for  their  misconduct."  The  following  passage  is 
not  translated  according  to  the  distinct  and  proper  mean 
ings  of  the  words  shall  and  %vill:  "Surely  goodness  and 
mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  da^s  of  my  lite;  and  I  wilt 
ilwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  forever;"  it  ought  to  be, 
"/^i7/ follow  me,"  and  "I  shall  dwell." — The  foreigner 
vvho,  as  it  is  said,  fell  into  the  Tham.es,  and  cried  out;  ••! 
unll  be  drowned,  no  body  &/ia//  help  me;"  made  a  sad 
misapplicafion  of  these  auxilianes. 

These  observ^ations  respecting  the  import  of  the  verb 
will  arid  shall,  must  be  understood  of  explicative  sen 
tences;  for  when  the  sentence  Jl*  interrogative,  just  tlu 
reverse,  for  the  most  part,  takes  place:  thus,  "I  shall  go. 
vou  liill  go;"  express  event  only:  but,  '^iviU  you  gor' 
nnports  intention;  and,  '^shall  I  go?"  refers  to  tlie  wil' 
jf  aiaotlier.  But,  ^^lie  shall  go,"  and  ' ^ shall  he  gor 
both  imply  will;  expressing  or  referring  to  a  command 

When  the  verb  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  th( 
meaning  of  these  auxiliaries  likewise  unttergoes  sorn* 
alteration;  as  the  learners  will  readily  perceive  by  afev 
f'xamples:  "He  shall  proceed,"  "If  he  shall  proceed;'" 
"You  shall  consent,"  "If  you  shall  consent."  These 
iuixiliaries  aire  sometimes  interchanged,  in  tiie  indicativp 
and  subjunctive  moods,  to  convey  the  same  meaning  ot 
the  auxiliary:  as,  "He  wili  not  return,"  "If  he   shal^ 


ETY5IOLOGY.  91 

not  return;"  *»He  shall  4iot  return,"  ''If  he  will  not  re- 
turn." 

^roi^f/ypninarily  denotes  inclination  of  will;  and  should  j 
obligation:  but  they  both  v;iry  their  import,  and  are  often 
used  to  express  simple  event. 

Section  8.     The  Conjugation  of  Regular  Verbs. 

.  •*  AGxrvE. 

* 

'  Verbs  Active  are  called  Re^lar,  when  they  fornj 
their  imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  their 
{)erfect  participle,  by  adding  to  the  verb  e^,  or  donly 
when  the  verb  ends  in  e:  as^ 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perf.  Particip. 

I  favour.  I  favoured.  Favoured. 

I  love.  1  loved.  Loved.^ 

A  Regular  Active  Verb  is  conjugated  in  the  fol- 
' owing  manner. 

To  LOVE. 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present  'Tense, 

^'lllgula^.  PluraL 

i.  Hove.*  1,  We  love, 

I.  Tliou  lovest.  2.  Ye  or  you  love. , 

nr  loves.  ^ 

Imperfect  Tense. 

plural. 
>:^ngular.  ^^  W^loved. 

t.  I  loved.  ,     o,.  Ye  or  YOU  loved. 

>.  Thou  lovedst.  -■  ^^     f^^.^,^, 

-..  He  loved.  ^'         ^ 

Perfect  Teme. 

ipi.ural. 

Singular.  1.  We  have  loved. 

1 .  I  have  loved.  Y^  ^^         y^avc  l©vc<R 

^2.  Thou  hast  loved.  ^-  ^^^  |4|e  ItJved. 


T)ve 


9£  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Pluperfect  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  loved.  1.  We  had  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  had  loved. 
."5.  He  had  loved.  3.  Tliey  had  loved. 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural.  *  •    »   1 

I.  I  shall  or  will  love.  1.  We  shall  or  will  love.      \ 

I.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love.  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  love. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  love.       3.  They  shall.or  will  love. 

Second  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall^ve  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved.       2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  loved.  3.  They  will  have  loved. 

Those  tenses  are  called  simple  tenses,  which  are  formed 
of  the  principal,  without  an  auxiliary  verb:  as,  "I  love, 
I  loved.-'  The  compound  tenses  are  such  as  cannot  be 
formed  without  an  auxiliary  verb:,  as,  "I  have  lovedj  I 
had  loved;  I  shall  or  will  love;  I  may  love;  I  may  he 
loved;  I  may  have  been  loved;"  &c.  These  compounds 
— aa^e— limsLev£r.  to  be  considered  as  only  different  forms  of 

Imperative  Mood. 

Singular. 
3.  Let  me  love.  ,    r^^^", 

VLethimW  S.Vt\CZ^ 

Potential  Moad. 
Fresent  Tense.  i 

£,inay  or  can  love,  t    w^  ^  ' ' 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  love  2   vl .  ^^  ^'*  ^^^  ^^''^' 
^.  He  may  Ir  can  CeV       f  tL.T"'"^^^*^!^^^^'^ 


Et'tkoiOGr.  ^ 

Imperfect  Ten^e, 

Singular.  Plural 

l.'l  might, couldj  would,' or  1.  We  mi^ht,  could,  would, 

should  love.  or  should  love. 

^  Thou  mightst,   couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could,,. 

would9t,.orshouhlst  love.       would,  or  should  love. 
^.  He  mid^t,  could,,  would,  3.  They  might,could,would-» 

or  should  love.  or  should,  love,. 

I  Perfect  Tense. 

j:ingular.     -  Plural. 

I.  I  may  or  can  have  loved-  1..  We  may  or  can  have  loved, 
I,  Thou   mayst   or  canst    2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  caiv 

have  loved.  have  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  haye    3.  They   may   or  can  ha\>: 

loved.  loved. 

Flupmfeet   Tense. 

Singular.  Plural.  '' 

1.  I  might,    could,  wottld,  1.  We  mio;ht,  could,  wotild. 
or  should  have  lov^d.  or  should  have  loved. 

2.  Thou   mightst,   couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
w6uldst,"^or  shouldst  have      would,    or    should    have, 
loved.  -    .  loved* 

3.  He  mi^ht,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would^^ 
or  should  liave  loved.  or  should  have  loved. 

Subjunctive   Mood. 
Present  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  lovci 

2.  If  thou  love.,  2.  If  ye  or  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love.  3.  If  they  love^ 

,The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood,  are,  in  genera?, 
similar  to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood. 
See  page  82,  aivl  page  95.  '  • 

It  may  be  of  use  to  the  scholar,  to  remark,  in  this  place, 
that  though  only  the  conjunction  if\^  affixed  to  the  verb, 
any  other  conjunction  proper  for  the  subjunctive  mood, 
may,  with  equal  propriety,  be  occasionally  annexed;    The 


94.  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

instance  given  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  subject:  mdre 
would  be  tedious,  and  tend  to  emoarrass  the  learner. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
Presents    To  love.  Perfect,    To  ha\'e  loved-. 

Participles. 
,<■         Present.    Loving.  Perfect,     Loved, 

Compound  Perfect.    Having  loved.  J 

The  active  verb  may  be  conjuffated  differemly,  by  add- 
ing its  present  or  active  participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  to 
btf  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses;  as,  instead  of  "I  teach, 
thou  teachest,  he  teaches,"  &c.;  we  may  say,  "I  am  teach- 
ing, thou  art  teaching,  he  is  teaching,'*  &.c.:  and  instead  ot 
*H  taught/', &c.  ^*I  was  teaching,"  &:c.  and  so  on,  through 
all  the  vanitoons  of  the  auxiliary.  This  mode  of  conju- 
gation has,  on  particular  occasions,  a  peculiar  propriety  j 
and  contributes  to  the  harmony  and  precision  oi  the  lan- 
guage. These  forms  of  expression  are  adapted  to  parti- 
cular acts,  not  to  general  habits,  or  aiFections  of  the  mind. 
They  are  very  frequently  applied  to  neuter  verbs;  as,  "I 
am  musing;  he  is  sleeping."* 

Some  grammarians  apply,  what  is  called  the  conjunctive 
temiination,  to  the  persons  of  the  principal  verb,  and  toit^ 
auxiliaries,  through  all  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood. 
But  this  is  certainly  contrary  to  the  practice  of  good  wri- 
ters. Johnson  applies  this  termination  to  the  present  and 
perfect  tenses  only.  Lowtii  restricts  it  entirely  to  the  pre  * 
sent  tense;  and  Priestley  confines  it  to  the  present  and  im- 
perfect tenses.  This  difference  of  opinion  amongst  gram- 
marians of  such  eminence,  may  have  contributed  to  that 
diversity  of  practice,  so  observable  in  the  use  of  the  sub- 
junctive mood.  Uniformity  in  this  point  is  highly  desirable. 
It  would  materially  assist  both  teachers  and  learners;  and 
would  constitute  a  considerable  improvement  in  our  lan- 
guage. On  this  subject,  we  adopt  the  opinion  of  Dr. 
luowth;  and  conceive  we  are  fully  w^arranted  by  his  au- 

*  As  tlie  participle,  in  this  mode  of  conjugation,  perforins  the  office  of  a  verb, 
through  all  the  moods  and  lenses;  aiid  as  it  implies  the  idea  of  time,  and  governs 
the  objeciive  case  of  nouns  a;..i  pronouns,  in  tlie  same  manner  as  verbs  do;  is  it 
not  manifest,  that  it  is  a  species  or  form  of  the  verb,  and  that  it  cannot  be  properly, 
considered  as  a  distinct  part  of  speechi 


EJ-YMOLOGY.  95 

fhority,  and  that  of  the  most  correct  and  elegant  writers,  iu 
limiting  the  conjunctive  termination  of  the  principal  verb, 
to  the  second  and  third  persons  sinajular  of  the  present  tense. 

Grammarians  have  not  only  difTered  in  opinion,  repect- 
ing  the  extent  and  variations  of  the  subjunctive  mood;  but 
a  few  of  them  have  even  doubted  the  existence  of  such  a 
mood  in  the  English  language.  These  writers  assert,  that 
the  verb  has  no  variation  from  the  indicative;  and  tliat  a 
conjunction  added  to  the  verb,  gives  it  no  title  to  become 
a  distinct  mood;  or,  at  most,  no  better  than  it  would  have, 
if  any  other  particle  were  joined  to  it.  To  these  observa- 
tions it  may  be  replied;  1st.  It  is  evident,  on  inspection, 
that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  tense  of  the 
principal  verbs,  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  of  the 
verb  to  be,  and  the  second  and  third  persons,  in  both  num 
bers,  of  the  second  future  tense  of  all  verbs;*  require  a 
variation  from  the  forms  which  those  tenses  have  in  the 
indicative  mood.  So  much  difference  in  the  form  of  the 
verb,  would  warrant  a  correspondent  distinction  of  mood, 
though  the  remaining  parts  of  the  subjunctive  were,  in  all 
respects,  similar  to  those  of  the  indicative.  In  other  lan- 
guages, a  principle  of  this  nature  has  l>een  admitted,  both 
in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  and  the  declension  of  nouns. 
2d.  There  appears  to  be  as  much  propriety,  in  giving  a 
conjunction  tne  power  of  assisting  to  form  the  subjunctive 
mood,  as  there  is  in  allowing  the  particle  fo  to  have  an  ef- 
fect in  the  formation  of  the  infinitive  mood.t  Sd.  A  con- 
junction -added  to  tiie  verb,  shows  the  manner  of  being, 
doing,  or  suffering,  which  other  particles  cannot  show: 
tliey  do  not  coalesce  with  the  verb,  and  modify  it,  as  con- 
junctions do.  4th.  It  may  be  said,  ''If  contingency  con- 
stitutes the  subjunctive  mood,  then  it  is  the  sense  of  a 
phrase,  and  not  a  conjunction,  that  determines  this  mood.-" 
But  a  little  reflection  will  show,  that  the  contingent  sense 
lies  in  the  meaning  and  force  of  the  conjunction,  ex- 
pressed or  understood. 

This  subject  may  be  farther  illustrated,  by  the  following 
observations. -^Moods  have  a  foundation  in  nature.  They 

-*  We  think  it  has  been  proved,  that  the  auxiliary  is  a  constituent  part  of  the 
verb  to  which  it  relates:  that  the  principal  and  ita  anxlhary  form  but  one  verb. 
.     t  Conjunctions  have  an  influence  on  the  nioud  of  the  tbllowiag  verb. 

/>r.  BeattH. 
'opjunctioBs  have  soroctimcB  a  government  ef  ajoods.~Z>/-.  Loxctk. 


Hi  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

instance  given  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  subject:  mora 
would  be  tedious,  and  tend  to  emoarrass  the  learner. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
Present,    To  love.  Perfect,    To  hare  loved-. 

Participles. 
.  t         Present.    Loving.  Perfect.     Loved, 

Compound  Perfect.    Having  loved.  J 

The  active  verb  may  be  conjugated  differeiM}^,  by  add- 
ing  its  present  or  active  participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  to 
be,  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses;  as,  instead  of  "I  teachy 
thou  teachest,  he  teaches,"  &c.;  we  may  say,  "I  am  teach- 
ing, thou  art  teaching,  he  is  teaching,"  &c.:  and  instead  oi 
*H  taught,"  &.C.  **I  was  teaching,"  &c.  and  so  on,  through 
all  the  var^ions  of  the  auxiliary.  This  mode  of  conju 
gation  has,  on  particular  occasions,  a  peculiar  propriety  j 
and  contributes  to  the  harmony  and  precision  of  the  lan- 
guage. These  forms  of  expression  are  adapted  to  parti- 
cular acts,  not  to  general  habits,  or  affections  of  the  mind^ 
They  are  very  frequently  applied  to  neater  verbs;  as,  "1 
am  musing;  he  is  sleeping."* 

Some  grammarians  apply,  what  is  called  the  conjunctive 
t£wiinaiion,  to  the  persons  of  the  principal  verb,  and  to  its 
auxiliaries,  through  all  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood. 
But  this  is  certainly  contrary  to  the  practice  of  good  wri- 
ters. Johnson  applies  this  termination  to  the  present  and 
perfect  tenses  only.  Lowtii  restricts  it  entirely  to  the  pre- 
sent tense;  and  Priestley  confines  it  to  the  present  and  im- 
perfect tenses.  This  difference  of  opinion  amongst  gram- 
marians of  such  eminence,  may  have  contributed  to  that 
diversity  of  practice,  so  observable  in  the  use  of  the  sub- 
junctive mood.  Uniformity  in  this  point  is  highly  desirable. 
It  would  materially  assist  both  teachers  and  learners;  and 
would  constitute  a  considerable  improvement  in  our  lan- 
guage. On  this  subject,  we  adopt  the  opinion  of  Dr. 
Lowth;  and  conceive  we  are  fully  w^arranted  by  his  au- 

*  As  the  participle,  in  this  mode  of  conjugation,  perforins  the  office  of  a  verb, 
through  all  the  nioods  and  tent-'is;  aod  as  it  implies  the  idea  of  time,  and  governs 
the  objeciive  cas»^of  nouns  a  .d  pronouns,  in  the  same  manner  as  verbs  do;  is  it 
not  manifest,  that  it  is  a  speci(«  or  form  of  the  verb,  and  tiiat  it  cannot  be  properly 
considered  as  a  distinct  part  of  speechi 


EJ-YMOLOGY.  9j 

fhority,  and  that  of  the  most  correct  and  elegant  writers,  in 
limiting  the  conjunctive  termination  of  the  principal  verb, 
to  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present  tense. 

Grammarians  have  not  only  differed  in  opinion,  repect- 
in»  the  extent  and  variations  of  the  subjunctive  mood;  but 
a  few  of  them  have  even  doubted  the  existence  of  such  a 
mood  in  the  English  language.  These  writers  assert,  that 
the  verb  has  no  variation  from  the  indicative;  ^nd  that  a 
conjunction  added  to  the  verb,  gives  it  no  title  to  become 
a  distinct  mood;  or,  at  most,  no  better  than  it  would  have, 
if  any  other  particle  were  joined  to  it.  To  these  observa- 
tions it  may  be  replied;  1st.  It  is  evident,  on  inspection, 
that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  tense  of  the 
principal  verbs,  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  of  the 
verb  to  be,  and  the  second  and  third  perstms,  in  both  num- 
bers, of  the  second  future  tense  of  all  verb^^  require  a 
variation  from  the  forms  which  those  tenses  have  in  the 
indicative  mood.  So  much  difference  in  the  form  of  the 
verb,  would  warrant  a  correspondent  distinction  of  mood, 
though  the  remaining  parts  of  the  subjunctive  were,  in  alt 
respects,  similar  to  those  of  the  indicative.  In  other  Ian- 
^ua<5es,  a  principle  of  this  nature  has  l>^en  admitted,  both 
m  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  and  the  declension  of  nouns. 
2d.  There  appears  to  be  as  much  propriety,  in  giving  a 
conjunction  tne  power  of  assisting  to  form  the  subjunctive 
mood,  as  there  is  in  allowing  the  particle  lo  to  have  an  ef- 
fect in  the  formation  of  tlie  infinitive  mood.t  Sd.  A  con- 
junction -added  to  the  verb,  shows  the  manner  of  being, 
doing,  or  suffering,  which  other  particles  cannot  show: 
they  do  not  coalesce  with  the  verb,  and  modify  it,  as  con- 
junctions do.  4th.  It  may  be  said,  "If  contingency  con- 
stitutes the  subjunctive  mood,  then  it  is  the  sense  of  a 
phrase,  and  not  a  conjunction,  that  determines  this  mood.^" 
But  a  little  reflection  will  show,  that  the  contingent  sense 
lies  in  the  meaning  and  force  of  the  conjunction,  ex- 
pressed or  understood. 

This  subject  may  be  farther  illustrated,  by  the  following 
observations. — Moods  have  a  foundation  in  nature.  They 

*  We  think  it  has  been  proved,  that  the  auxiliary  is  a  constituent  part  of  the 
verb  tn  which  it  relates:  tliat  the  principal  and  it3  anxUiary  form  but  cM>e  verb. 
.     t  Conjunctions  have  an  influence  on  lie  mood  of  tlie  tbllovviug  verb. 

Dr.  £eat(H. 
CopjunctioQs  have  somctimcB  a  governnacnt  cf  oioo^.—Dr.  Lowth. 


96  EKm-ISH    GRJVMMATl. 

shp"vv  what  is  certain;  what  is  possible;  what  is  condition 
alj  what  is  commanded.  They  express  also  other  concep- 
ibns  and  volitions;  all  signifying  the  manner  of  being, 
doing,  or  sufteri.ug.  But  as  it  would  .tend  to  obscure, 
rather  than  elucidate  the  subje.?tyif  the  moods  were  par- 
ticularly enumerated,  grammarians  have  verj  pn)per]\ 
given  tfiem  such  combinations  and  arrangements,  as  scr\  < 
to  explain  the  nature  of  thi§  part  of  language,  and  to 
render  the  know.ted^e  of  it  ,ea^il^-  attainable. 

The  grammar*  ol  some  languages  .contain  a  greater 
number  of  the  moods,  than  others,  and  exhib'tt  them  in 
<liiferent  forms.  The  Greek  and  Ilwnajti.  tongues  denote 
them,  by  particular  variations  in  tlie  >*erb  itsr'elf.  This 
form,  however,  was  the  ^t^^ct  of  ingenr4i1^^and  improve- 
ment: it  is  not  essential' to  the  nature  of  thfi  subject.  The 
moods  maK^e  as  eifegtuallj  designa'ted  by  a  plurality  of 
words,  as'1^ .a  change  in* the  appearance  of  a  single  word: 
because  the  same  ideas. are  denoted,  and  the  same  end 
accomplished,  by  eitlrer  luanner  of  cxprcsvsi^n. 

On  tliis. ground,  the  moods  of  the  English  verb,  as  well 
as  Ihe  tenses,  are,  witlv^eat  propriety,  formed  partly  by 
the  principal  verb  itselt^  and  partly  by  the  assistance 
which  fhat  verb  deriA'es.frojn  other  words.  For  furtliei 
observations, relative  to  the!  \ie\\  s  and  sentiments  here  aci 
vancedjsee  pagesri— 72. 70^-78. 1 00— 0  02— 1 85—1 8  \ 

Verbs  Passive  arc  cailed  reguiar,  wiien  they  form 
dieir  perfect  participle^b3-tlie  addition  of  r/  or  ed,  to  the 
verb:  as,  from  the  verb  * 'To  love,"  is  formed  the  pas- 
sive? **I  am  loved,  I  was  loved,  1  shall  be  loved,''  ^:o. 
A  passive  verb  is  conjugated  by  adding  the  perfect 
participle  to  the  auxiliary Vo  be,  through  all  its  changes 
of  number,,  .person,  mood,  and  tense,"in  the  follovirinc: 
manner. 

TO  BE  LOrHD. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  I  am  loved.  1.  We  are  loved. 

3.  Thou  art  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  are  loved. 

3..  He  is  loved,  •     3.  Thov  are  loved > 


ETYMOLOGY.  ST 

hnptrfect  Tense* 

Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  was  loved.  1.  We  were  loved. 

2.  Thou  wast  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  were  lovedc 

3.  He  was  loved.  3.  They  were  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plufal. 

1.  I  have  been  loved.  1.  We  have  been  loved. 

i2.  Thou  hast  been  loved.      2.  Yeoryou  have  been  loved 
3.  Hehathorhasbeen  loved.  S.  They  have  been  lovedc 

Pluperfect    Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

i.   I  had  been  loved.  1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,  2.  Ye  or  you  had  been  loved 

3.  He  had  been  loved.  3.  They  liad  been  loved. 

First  Future,  Tense. 

oiiiguiar.  'Plural. 

J .  1  shall  or  will  be  loved.     1.  We  shall  or  uili  be  loved. 

2.  Thou   shalt  or   wilt   be    2.  Ye  or  you  sht^il  or  will  be 
loved.  loved. 

0.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved.  3.  They  shall  or  will  be  iovedc 

Second  Future  Tense. 
biny;uiav.  Plural. 

5.  I  shall  have  been  loved.   1.  We  shall  have  been  loved 
^,  Thou    wilt    have    been  2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  been 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  been  loved.  3.  They  will  have  been  loved. 

Imperative  Mood. 

^^  insular.  Plural. 

1.  Let  me  be  loved.  1.  Let  us  be  loved. 

.2.  Be   thou    loved,    or  do  2.  Be  yc  or  you  loved,  t'- u. 

thou  be  loved.  ye  be  loved. 

"    T,f>t  Kim  be  loved.  3.  .Let  them  be  loved. 
i 


9B  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  

Potential  Mood. 
Present   Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  be  loved.      1.  We  may  or  can  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  ot  canst  be  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be  loved.   3.  They  may  or  can  be  loved." 

Lnperfect  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be  loved.  or  should  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  midit,  could, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  be  would,  or  should  be  lov- 
loved....<  ed. 

3.  He  nii^ht,  could,  would,  S.They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be  loved.  or  should  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have  been  1.  We  may  or  can  have  been 
loved.  loved.                              * 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can 
have  been  loved.  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  3.  They  may  or  can  have 
been  loved.  been  loved: 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have  been  loved.  or  should  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst, or  shouldst  have  would,  or  should  have 
been  loved.  been  loved. 

3.  He  might, could, would,  or  3.  They  might, could,  would, 
should  have  been  loved.  or  should  have  been  loved. 

Subjunctive   Mood. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be  loved.         1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  thou  be  loved.      2.  If  ye  or  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  be  loved.        3.  If  they  be  loved. 


ZTTMOIOGTY.  99 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were  loved.  1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2,  If  thou  wert  loved.  2.  If  ye  or  you  were  loved. 
5.  If  he  were  loved.  3.  If  they  were  loved. 


The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood  are,  in  general,  si- 
milar to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood. 
See  pages  82,  95,  and  the  notes  under  the  nineteenth 
rule  of  Syntax. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
Present  Tense,  Perfect. 

To  be  loved.  To  have  h^n  loved. 

Participles. 

Present.  Being  loved. 

Perfect  or  Passive.  Loved. 

Compound  Perfect.  Having  been  loved. y 

'  When  an  auxiliary  is  joined  to  the  participle  of  the 
principal  verb,  the  auxiliary  goes  through  all  the  variations 
of  person  and  number,  and  the  participle  itself  continues 
invariably  the  same.  When  there  are  two  or  more  auxi- 
liaries joined  to  the  participle,  the  first  of  them  only  is 
varied  according  to  person  and  number.  The  auxiliary 
must  admits  of  no  variation. 

The  neuter  verb  is  conjugated  like  the  active;  but  as  \t 
partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  affmits, 
in  many  instances,  of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the 
neuter  signification:  as,  "I  am  arrived;"  "I  was  gone;"' 
"I  am  grown."  The  auxiliary  verb,  arn^was,  in  this  case, 
precisely  defines  the  time  of  the  action  or  event,  but  does 
not  change  the  nature  of  it;  the  passive  form  still  express- 
ing, not  properly  a  passion,  but  only  a  state  or  condition 
of  being. 

Section  9.     Observations  on  Passive  Verbs. 

Some  writers  on  grammar  assert,  that  there  are  no  Pas- 
sive Verbs  in  the  English  language,  because  we  have  no 

4 


£G0  ENGLISa  GRABfMAR^. 

verbs  of  this  kind  with  a  peculiar  termination,  all  of  them' 
being  formed  by  the  different  tenses  of  the  auxiliary  fo  he^ 
Joined  to  the  passive  participle  of  the  verb.  This  is,  how- 
ever, to  mistake  the  tnie  nature  of  the  English  verb;  and 
to  regulate  it,  not  on  the  principles  of  our  own  tongue, 
but  on  those  of  foreign  languages.  The  conjugation,  or 
the  variation,  of  the  English  verb,  to  answer  all  the  pur- 
poses of  verbs,  is  accomplished  by  the  means  of  auxiliaries; 
and  if  it  be  alleged  tVat  we  have  no  passive  verbs,  be- 
cause we  cannot  exhibit  them  without  having  recourse  to 
lielping  verbs,  it  may  with  equal  truth  be  said,  that  We 
liaveno  perfect^ pluperfect^  w future  te-nse,  in  the  indicative 
or  subjunctive  mood;  since  these,  as  well  as  some  other 
parts  of  the  verb  active,  are  formed  by  auxiliaries. 

Even  ttee  Greek  and  Latin  passive  verbs  require  an 
auxiliary  to  conjugate  some  of  their  tenses;  namely,  the 
former,  in  the  preterit  of  the  optative  and  subjunctive 
moods;  and  the  latter,  in  tlie  perfect  and  pluperfect  of 
the  indicative,  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  fixture,  of  the 
subjunctive  mood,  and  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  The 
deponent  verbs,  in  Latin,  require  also  an  auxiliary  to  con- 
jugate several  of  their  tenses.  This  statement  abundantly 
proves  that  the  coitjugation  of  a  verb  in  the  learned  lan- 
guages does  not^dhsist  solely  in  varying  the  form  of  the 
original  verb.  It  proves  that  these  languages,  like  our 
own  language,  sometimes  conjugate  with  an  auxiliary,  and 
sometimes  without  it.  There  is,  indeed,  a  difference* 
What  the  learned  langq^ges  require  to  be  done,  in  some 
instances,  the  peculiar  genius  of  our  own  tongue  obliges 
us  t(Alo,  in  active  verbs,  principally,  and  in  passive  onesj 
universally.  In  short,  tlie  variation  of  the  verb,  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  is  generally  accoB^plished  by  prefixes,  or  ter- 
minations, added  to  the  verb  itself;  in  English,  by  the 
addition  of  auxiliaries. 

The  English  tongue  is,  in  many  respects,  materially  dif- 
ferent from  the  learned  languages.  It  is,  therefore,  very 
possible  to  be  mistaken  ourselves,  and  to  mislead  and  per- 
plex others,  by  an  undistinguishing  attachment  to  the  prin- 
ciples and  arrangement  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Gramma- 
rians. Much  of  the  confusion  and  perplexity,  which  we 
meet  with  in  the  writings  of  some  English  Grammarians, 
on  the  subject  of  verbs,  moods,  and  conjugations,  has  ariseis 


ETYMOLOGY.  101 

from  the  misapplication  of  names.    We  are  apt  to  think, 
that  Ihe  old  names  must  always  be  attached  to  the  identi- 


cal forms  and  things  to  which  they  were  anciently  attach 
ed.  But  if  we  rectify  this  mistake,  and  properly  adjust 
the  names  to  the  peculiar  forms  and  nature  of  the  thmgs 
in  our  own  language,  we  shall  be  clear  and  consistent  in 
our  ideas;  and,  consequently,  better  able  to  represent 
them  intelligibly  to  those  whom  we  wish  to  inform. 

The  observations  which  we  have  made  under  this  head, 
and  on  the  subject  of  the  moods  in  anotiier  place,  will  not 
apply  to  the  declension  and  cases  of  nouns,  so  as  to  require 
us  to  adopt  names  and  divisions  similar  to  those  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages:  for  we  sliould  then  have  more 
cases  than  there  are  prepositions  in  connexion  with  the  ar- 
ticle and  noun :  and  after  all,  it  would  be  a  useless,  as  welt 
as  an  unwiehly  apparatus;  since  every  English  preposition 
points  to,  and  governs,  but  one  case,  namely  the  objective; 
which  is  also  true  with  respect  to  our  governing  verbs 
and  participles.  But  the  conjugation  of  an  English  verb 
in  form,  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  by  means  of 
auxiliaries,  so  far  from  being  useless  or  intricate,  is  a 
beautiful  and  regular  display  of  it,  and  indispensably 
necessary  to  the  language.  ^ 

Some  grammarians  have  alleged,  tha.ton  the  same  ground 
that  the  voices,  moods,  and  tenses,  ar»  admitted  into  the 
English  tongue,  in  the  forms  for  which  we  have  contended, 
we  should  also  admit  the  dual  number,  the  paulo  post  future 
tense,  the  middle  voice^  and  all  the  moods  and  tenses, 
which  are  to  be  found  in  Greek  and  Latin.  But  this  objec- 
tion, though  ur§ed  with  much  reliance  on  its  weight,  is  not 
well  founSed.  If  the  arrangement  of  the  moods,  tense&, 
&c.  which  we  haye  adopted,  is  suited  to  the  idiom  of  our 
tongue;  and  the  principle,  on  which  they  are  adopted,  is 
extended  as  far  as  use  and  convenience  require;  where 
is  the  impropriety,  in  arresting  our  progress,  and  fixing 
ou,r  forms  at  the  point  of  utility?  A  principle  may  be 
warrantably  adopted,  and  carried  to  a  precise  convenient 
extent,  without  subjecting  its  supporters  to  the  charge  of 
inconsistency,  for  not  pursuing  it  beyond  the  line  of  use 
aiwl  propriety. 

The  importance  of  giving  the  ingenious  student  clear 
and  just  ideas  of  the  nature  of  our  verbs,  moods,  and 
12 


102  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR* 

tenses,  will  apologize  for  the  extent  of  the  Author's  re 
marks  on  these  subjects,  both  here  and  elsewheft,  and 
for  his  solicitude  to  simplify  and  explain  them. — He  thinks 
it  has  been  proved,  that  the  idiom  of  our  tongue  demands 
the  arrangement  he  has  given  to  the  English  verb;  and 
that,  though  the  learned  languages,  with  respect  to  voices, 
moods,  and  tenses,  are,  in  general,  differently  constructed 
from  the  English  tongue,  yet,  in  some  respects,  they  are 
so  similar  to  it,  as  to  warrant  the  principle  wliich  he  has 
adopted.  See  pages  71— 7^.  76—78.  94—96.  183— 
184. 

Section  10.     Of  Irregular  Verbs, 

'  Irregular  Verbs  are  those  w^hich  do  not  form  their 
imperfect  tense,  and  their  perfect  participle,  by  thf 
addition  of  d  or  ed  to  the  verb:  as, 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

I  begin,  I  began,  begun. 

I  know,  I  knew,  known. 

Irregular  Verbs  are  of  various  sorts. 

1.  Such  as  have  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses,  and 
perfect  participle,  the  same:  as, 

Present.  IinperCect.  Perfect  Part- 

Cost,  cost,  cost. 

Put,  put,  put. 

2.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  par- 
ticiple, the  same:  as. 

Present.  Imperfect  Perfect  Parf 

Abide,  abode,       v  abode. 

Sell,  sell,  sold. 

3.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  pa^ 
liciple,  different:  as. 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Fart. 

Arise,  arose,  arisen. 

Blow,  blew,  blown. 

Many  verbs  become  irregular  by  contraction;  as,  <*feed». 
jfed];  ;leave^left:"  others  by  the  termination  ens  as^  "faJJ, 


ETYMOLOGY.  lOS 

fell,  fallen:"  others  by  the  termination  ght;  as,  **buy, 
bougte;  teach,  taught,"  &c. 

The  following  list  of  the  irregular  verbs  will,  it  is  pre- 
sumed, be  found  both  comprehensive  and  accurate. 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Abide, 

abode, 

abode. 

Am, 

was. 

been. 

Arise, 

ai'ose. 

arisen. 

Awake, 

awoke,  r. 

awaked. 

Bear,  to  b  ringforthpdre, 

born. 

Bear,  to  carry, 

bore, 

borne. 

Beat, 

beat, 

beaten,  beat^ 

Begin, 

began. 

begun. 

Bend, 

bent, 

bent. 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r. 

bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

besought. 

besought. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade, 

bidden,  bid. 

Bind, 

bound, 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit, 

bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bled. 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

Break, 

broke, 

broken. 

Breed, 

bred. 

bred. 

Bring, 
Build, 

brought, 
built. 

brought, 
built. 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Buy, 

bought, 

bought. 

Cast, 

cas^ 

cast. 

Catch, 

caught,  R, 
chid. 

caught,  R. 
chidden,  chid^ 

Chide, 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

< 'leave,  to  stick 
or  adhere, 

1-  REGud^. 

V  leave,  to  splity 

clove,  or  cleft.. 

cleft,  cloveju 

(Ming, 
Clothe,  . 

clung. 

clung. 

clothed, 

elad,  R. 

Gome, 

came. 

come. 

Cost, 

cost,. 

cost. 

Crow, 

crew,  R. 

crowed 

Creep,  . 

crept^ 

crept 

Cyt, 

cut. 

cut. 

104 


ENGLISH   GHAMMAR. 


Present. 

Dare,  to  venture,    durst. 

Dare,  R.  to  challenge. 

Deal, 

Big, 

Do, 

Draw, 

Drive, 

Drink, 

Dwell, 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Fly, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Have, 

Hang, 

Hear, 

Hew, 

Hide^ 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

^it, 


Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

durst. 

dared. 

dealt,  R. 

dealt,  R. 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

did. 

done. 

drew, 

drawn. 

drove. 

driven. 

drank, 

drunk. 

dwelt,  R. ', 

dwelt,  R. 

eat,  or  atcK 

eaten. 

fell,            ^ 

-      fallen. 

fed. 

fed. 

felt, 

felt. 

fought, 

fought. 

found, 

found. 

fled, 

fled. 

flung. 

flung.    ^ 

flew. 

flown. 

forgot. 

forgotten,  forgot. 

forsook, 

forsaken. 

froze, 

frozen. 

got, 

got.* 

gilt,   R. 

gilt,  R.          .       > 

girt,  R. 

girt,  R.                    ; 

gave. 

given. 

went, 

gone. 

graved, 

graven,  r. 

ground, 

ground. 

grew, 
had. 

^rown. 
lad. 

hung,  R. 

hung,  R. 

heard,       ^ 
hewed,      ^v 

heard. 

hewn,  R. 

hid, 

hidden,  hid>  x 

hit. 

hit. 

held. 

held. 

hurt, 

hurt. 

kept, 

kept. 

knit,  R. 

knit.  R-. 

*  QoUm is  ne^Ijr  obsolete.   Its wmpowai forgoitvn is  fiCn lo good  tt£.. 


Present 

Impcifeot- 

Perf.  or  Paw.  Part, 

Know, 

knew. 

known. 

Lade, 

laded. 

laden. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid.  • 

Lead, 

led, 

led. 

Leave, 

left, 

left. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lent. 

Let, 

let. 

let. 

Lie,  to  lie  down. 

lay, 

lain. 

Load, 

loaded* 

laden,  r. 

Lose, 

lost. 

lost. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Meet, 

met. 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown,  R. 

Pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

Put, 

put. 

put. 

Read, 

read. 

read. 

Rend, 

rent. 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid. 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode, 

rode,  ridden.* 

Ring, 

rung,  rang, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived, 

riven. 

Run, 

ran. 

run. 

Saw, 

sawed. 

sawn,  R. 

Say, 

said. 

said. 

See, 

saw. 

seen. 

BeeK, 

sought, 
sokf. 

sought, 
sold. 

Sell, 

Send, 

sent. 

sent. 

Set, 

set. 

set. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Shape, 

shaped, 

shaped,  shapen, 

Shave, 

shaved, 

shaven,  r. 

Shear, 

sheared, 

shorn. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone,  r. 

shone,  r. 

Show, 

showed. 

shown. 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot. 

shot. 

^ 


*Ridden  is  nearly  obsolete. 


106 


fiNGtISH  GRAMMAR, 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Shrink, 

shrunk, 

shrunk.  . 

Shred, 

shred. 

shred. 

Shut, 

shut. 

shut. 

Sing, 

sung,  saijg, 

sung.        n 
sunk. 

Sink, 

sunk,  sank, 

Sit, 

sat. 

sat. 

Slaj, 

slew, 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept, 
slid, 

slept, 
sliddefa. 

Slide, 

Sling, 
Slink, 

slung, 
slunk, 

slung, 
slunk. 

Slit, 

slit,  R. 

slit,  or  slitted. 

Smite, 

smote. 

smitten. 

Sow, 

sowed. 

sown,  R. 

Speak, 

spoke. 

spoken. 

Speed, 

sped. 

sped. 

Spend, 

speat. 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  R. 

Spin, 

spun, 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit,  spat, 

spit,  spitten.* 

Split, 

split, 

split. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung,  spraiig, 

sprung. 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Steal; 

stole. 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung, 
stunk. 

stung, 
stunk. 

Stink, 

Stride, 

strode,  or  strid, 

stridden. 

Strike, 

struck, 

struck,  or  stricken. 

String, 

strung. 

strung. 

Strive, 

strove. 

striven. 

Strow,  or  strew, 

strowedorstrevved,  \  ^^Z^ll^^"^^^' 

Swear, 

swore. 

sworn, 

Sweat, 

svvet,  R. 

swet,  R. 

Swell, 

swelled. 

swollen,  R. 

Swim, 

swum,  swam. 

swum. 

Swing, 

swung. 

swung. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

*  Spitten  is  nearly  obsolete. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

lt)7 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Terf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Tell, 

told. 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Thrive, 

throve,  r. 

thriven. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod, 

trodden. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen,  r. 

Wear, 

wore, . 

worn. 

Weave. 

wove. 

woven. 

Weep, 

wept. 

wept. 

Win, 

won. 

won. 

Wind, 

wound, 

wound. 

Work, 

wrought. 

wrought  ar  worked. 

Wring, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote. 

written.  ? 

In  the  preceding  list,  some  of  the  verbs  will  be  found 
to  be  conjugated  regularly,  as  well  as  irregularly;  and 
those  which  admit  of  the  regular  form  are  marked  with 
an  R.  There  is  a  preference  to  be  given  to  some  of  these, 
which  custom  and  judgment  must  determine.  Those  pre- 
terits ancl  participles  wliich  arc  first  mentioned  in  the  list, 
seem  to  be  most  eligible.  The  Compiler  has  not  inserted 
such  verbs  as  are  irregular  only  in  familiar  writing  or 
discourse,  and  whicli  are  improperly  terminated  by /,  in- 
stead of  ed:  as,  learnt,  spelt,  spilt,  &c.  These  should  be 
avoided  in  every  sort  of  composition.  It  is,  however, 
proper  to  observe,  that  some  contractions  of  ed  into  if,  are 
unexceptionable:  and  others,  the  only  established  forms 
of  expression:  as,  crept,  gilt,  &c.:  and  lost,  felt,  slept, 
&c.  These  allowable  and  necessary  contractions  must 
therefore  be  carefully  distinguished  by  the  learner,  from 
those  that  are  exceptionable.  The  words  which  are 
obsolete  have  also  been  omitted,  that  the  learner  might 
not  be  induced  to  mistake  them  for  words  in  present  use. 
Such  are,  wreathen,  drunken,  holpen,  molten,  gotten, 
holden,  bounden,  &c.:  and  swang,  wrang,  slank,  strawed, 
^t,  brake,  tare,  ware,  &c. 


1^  ENGLISH   GBAMMAR. 


Section  11.     Of  Defective  Verbs;  and  of  the  different 
ways  in  which  verbs  are  conjugated. 

Defective  Verbs  are  those  which  are  used  only  in 
some  of  their  moods  and  tenses. 

The  principal  of  them  are  these. 

Preeent.  Imperfect.  Pcrf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Can,  could,  

May,  might,  

Shall,  should,  

Will,  would,  '  

Must,  must,  

Ought,  ought, 

quoth,  ^ 

That  the  verbs  must  and  ought  have  both  a  present  and 
past  signification,  appears  from  the  following  sentences: 
•'I  must  own  that  I  am  to  blame;"  '*He  must  have  been 
mistaken;*'  ''Speaking  things  which  they  ought  not;" 
^'These  ought  ye  to  have  done." 

In  most  languages  tliere  are  some  verbs  which  are  de- 
fective with  respect  to  persons.  These  are  denominated 
impersonal  verbs.  They  are  used  only  in  the  third  per- 
son, because  they  refer  to  a  subject  peculiarly  appropriated 
to  that  person;  as,  "It  rains,  it  snows,  it  hails,  it  lightens, 
it  thunaers."  But  as  tlie  wov^  impersonal  implies  a  total 
absence  of  persons,  it  is  improperly  applied  to  those  verbs 
which  have  a  person:  and  hent-e  it  is  nvanifest,  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  in  English,  ner  indeed,  in  any  language, 
as  a  sort  of  verbs  really  impersonal. 

The  whole  number  of  verbs  in  the  English  language, 
regular  and  irregular,  simple  and  compounded,  taken  to- 
u;ether,  is  about  4300.  'I'lie  number  of  irregular  verbs, 
the  defective  included,  is  about  177.* 

Some  Grammarians  have  thought  that  the  English  verh- 
as  well  as  those  of  the  C-Jreek,  Latin,  French,  and  otiu ; 
languages,  might  be  classed  into  several  conjugations 
and  that  the  three  different  terminations  of  the  participle 
might  be  the  distinguishing  characteristics.     They  have 
accordingly  proposed  three   conjugations;   namely,   tb*^ 

«  The  wluMe  number  of  ,w>ords,  in  the  Engiisii  language,  is  about  thitly-fiv 
,  tiiousaiid. 


ETYMOLOGY.       «  109 

first  to  consist  of  verbs,  the  participles  of  whicli  end  in  C(?, 

its  contraction  t;  the  second,  of  those  ending  in  ght; 

<1  the  third  of  those  in  en.    But  as  the  verbs  of  the  first 

tnjugation,  would  so  greatly  exceed  in  number  those -of 

miK  tne  others,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  preceding  account 

Ot  them;  and  as  those  of  the  t^ird  conjugation  are  so 

various  in  their  form,  and  incapable  of  being  reduced  to 

one  plain  rule;  it  seems  better  m  practice,  as  Dr.  Lowth 

justly  observes,  to  consider  the  first  in  ed  as  the  only 

regular  form,  and  the  other  as  deviations  from  it;  after 

the  example  of  the  Saxon  and  German  Grammarians. 

Before  we  close  the  account  of  the  verbs,  it  may  afford 
instruction  to  the  learners,  to  be  informed,  more  particu- 
larly than  they  have  been,  that  different  nations  have 
imade  use  of  different  contrivances  for  marking  the  tenses 
and  moods  of  their  verbs.  The  Greeks  and  Latins,  dis- 
tinguish them,  as  well  as  the  cases  of  their  nouns,  adjec- 
tives, and  participles,  by  varying  the  termination,  or 
otliervvise  changing  the  form,  of  the  word;  retaining, 
however,  those  radical  letters,  which  prove  the  inflection 
to  be  of  the  same  kindred  with  its  root.  The  modern 
tongues,  particularly  the  English,  abound  in  auxiliar3f 
words,  which  vary  the  meaning  of  the  noun,  or  the  verb, 
without  requiring  any  considerable  varieties  of  inflection 
Thus,/c?o  love,  idid  love,  I  have  loved,  I  had  loved,  I  shall 
love,  have  the  same  import  with  amOj  amabam,  amavi, 
amaveram,  amabo.  It  is  obvious,  that  a  language,  like 
the  Greek  and  Latin,  which  can  thus  comprehend  in  one 
word  the  meaning  of  two  or  three  words,  must  have  some 
advantages  over  those  which  are  not  so  comprehensive. 
Perhaps,  indeed,  it  may  not  be  more  perspicuous;  but,  in 
the  arrangement  of  words,  and  consequently  in  harmonr 
and  energy,  as  well  as  in  conciseness,  it  may  be  much 
more  elegant. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Of  Adverbs, 

•  An  Adverb  is  a  part  c^  speech  joined  to  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  and  sometimes  to  another  adverb,  to  ex- 
|)ress  some  quality  or  circumstance  respecting  it:  aa, 


I  to  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

'^He  reads  wellj^^  *^A  truly  good  man;"  <^He  writes 
vtiy  correctly.'' 

Some  adverbs  are  compared,  thus;  <^Soon,  sooner, 
soonest;"  ^^often,  oftener;  oftenest."  Those  ending 
in  ly,  are  compared  hy  more  and  7nost:  as,  ** Wisely, 
more  wisely,  most  wisely. 'V 

Adverbs  seem  originally  to  have  been  contrived  to 
«^xpress  compendiously  in  one  word,  what  must  otherwise 
have  required  two  or  more:  as,  "He  acted  wisely,"  for, 
}ie  acted  with  wisdom;  ''prudently,"  for,  with  prudence; 
'•He  did  it  here,"  for,  he  did  it  in  this  place;  "exceeding- 
ly," for,  to  a  great  degree;  "often  and  seldom,"  for  many, 
and  for  few  times;  *'very,"  for,  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree, &c 

There  are  many  words  in  the  English  language  that 
are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  and  sometimes  as  ad- 
verbs: as,  "More  men  than  women  were  there;"  or, 
•'I  am  more  diligent  than  he."  In  the  former  sentence 
?nore  is  evidently  an  adjective,  and  in  the  latter,  an  ad- 
verb. There  are  others  that  are  sometimes  used  as 
substantives,  and  sometimes  as  adverbs:  as,  "To-day's 
lesson  is  longer  than  yesterday's;"  here  to-day  and  yes- 
terday are  substantives,  because  they  are  words  that  make 
sense  of  themselves,  and  admit  besides  of  a  genitive  case,: 
but  in  the  phrase,  "He  came  home  yesterday,  and  sets 
out  again  to-day,"  they  are  adverbs  of  time;  because 
they  answer  to  the  question  when.  The  adverb  much  js 
used  as  all  three:  as,  "Where  much  is  given,  much  is 
required;"  *'Much  money  has  been  expended;"  "It  is 
much  better  to  go  than  to  stay."  In  the  first  of  these 
sentences,  much  is  a  substantive;  in  the  second,  it  is  an 
aBjective;  and  in  the  third,  an  adverb.  In  short,  nothing 
but  the  sense  can  determine  what  they  are. 

Adverbs,  though  very  numerous,  may  be  reduced  t« 
certain  classes,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  Number^ 
Order,  Place,  Time,  Quantity,  Manner  or  Quality,  Doubt, 
Affirmation,  Negation,  Interrogation,  and  Comparison. 

•    1.  Of  number:  as,  "Once,  tiyice,  thrice,"  &c. 

SL  Of  order:  as,  "First,  secondly,  thirdly,  foyrthlv, 
iifthly,  lastly,  finally,"  &ic. 


ETYMOLOGY,  111 

5.  Q(  place: asy  ''Here,  there,  where,  elsewhere,  any- 
Svhere,  somewhere,  nowhere,  herein,  whither,  hither, 
thither,  upward,  downward,  forward,  backward,  whence, 
hence,  thence,  whithersoever,"  &c. 

4.  Of  time,  ■^• 

Of  time  present:  as,  "Now,  to-day,*'  &c. 

Of  time  past:  as,  "Already,  before,  lately,  yesterday, 
iieretofore,  hitherto,  long  since,  long  ago,"  &c. 

Of  time  to  come:  as,  "To-morrow,  not  yet,  hereafter, 
henceforth,  henceforward,  by  and  by,  instantly,  presently, 
immediately,  straight  ways,"  &c. 

Of  time  indefinite:  as,  "Oft,  often,  oft  times,  often- 
times, sometimes,  soon,  seldom,  daily,  weekly,  monthly, 
yearly,  always,  when,  then,  ever,  never,  again,"  &c. 

%.  Of  quantity:  as,  ''Much,  little,  sufficiently,  how 
much,  how  great,  enough,  abundantly,"  &c. 

6.  Of  manner  or  quality:  as,  "Wisely,  foolishly,  just- 
ly, unjustly,  quickly,  slowly,"  &c.  Adverbs  of  quality 
are  the  most  numerous  kind;  and  they  are  generally 
formed  by  adding  the  termination  ly  to  an  adjective  or 
participle,  or  changing  le  into  /i/;  as,  "Bad,  badly; 
cheerful,  cheerfully;  able,  ably;  admirable,  admirably." 

r.  Of  doubt:  as,   * 'Perhaps,   peradventure,    possibly, 
,  perchance." 

8.  Of  affirmation:  as,  "Verily,  truly,  undoubtedly, 
doubtless,  certainly,  yea,  yes,  surely,  indeed,  really,"  &.c. 

9.  Of  negation:  as,  "Nay,  no,  not,  by  no  means,  not 
.at  all,  in  no  wise,"  &c. 

;       10.  Of  interrogation:    as,    "How,    why,    wherefore, 
'  whether,"  &c. 

11.  Of  comparison:  a«,  "More,  most,  better,  bes^, 
worse,  worst,  less,  least,  very,  almost,  little,  alike,"  %icj 

Besides  the  adverbs  already  mentioned,  there  are  many 
which  are  formed  by  a  combination  of  several  of  th« 
prepositions  with  the  adverbs  of  place  here,,  there^  and 
ivhere:  as,  "Hereof,  thereof,  whereof;  hereto,  thereto, 
wliereto;  hereby,  thereby,  whereby;  herewith,  therewith, 
wherewith;  herein,  therein,  wherein;  therefore,  (i.  e. 
there-for,)    wherefore,   (i.    e,    where-for,)   hereupon  oi 


112  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

hereon,  thereupon  or  thereon,  whereupon  or  whereon,^' 
he.    Except  therefore,  these  are  seldom  used. 

In  some  instances  the  preposition  suffers  no  change^ 
but  becomes  an  adverb  merely  by  its  application:  as  when 
we  say,  "he  rides  about;''^  *%e  was  near  falling;"  "but 
4I0  not  after  lay  the  blame  on  me." 

There  are  also  some  adverbs,  which  are  composed  of 
nouns,  and  the  letter  a  used  instead  of  at,  on,  &c,:  as, 
*•* Aside,  athirst,  afoot,  ahead,  asleep,  aboard,  ashore, 
abed,  aground,  afloat,"  &c. 

The  words  lohen  and  where,  and  all  others  of  the  same 
nature,  such  as,  whence,  whither,  whenever,  wherever^ 
&c.  may  be  properly  called  adverbial  conjunctions,  be- 
cause they  participate  the  nature  both  of  adverbs  and  con- 
junctions: of  conjunctions,  as  they  conjoin'sentences^  of 
adverbs,  as  they  denote  the  attributes  either  of  time  or 
of  place. 

It  may  be  particularly  observed  with  respect  to  the 
word  therefore,  that  it  is  an  adverb,  when,  without  joinins: 
sentences,  it  only  gives  the  sense  of,  for  that  reason. 
When  it  gives  that  sense,  and  also  connects,  it  is  a  con- 
junction: as,  ''He  is  good,  therefore\ie  is  happy."  The 
same  observation  may  be  extended  to  the  words  conse- 
quently, accordingly,  and  the  like.  When  these  are  sub- 
joined to  and,  or  joined  to  if,  since,  &c.  they  are  adverbs^ 
the  connexion  being  made  without  their  help:  when  they^ 
appear  single,  and  unsupported  by  any  other  connectiv^^ 
they  may  be  called  conjunctions." 

The  inquisitive  scholar  may  naturally  ask,  what  neces- 
sity there  is  for  adverbs  of  time,  when  verbs  afe  provided 
with  tenses,  to  show  that  circumstance.  The  answer  is, 
though  tenses  may  be  sufficient  to  denote  the  greater 
distinctions  of  time,  yet,  to  denote  them  all  by  the  tenses 
would  be  a  perplexity  without  end.  What  a  variety  of 
forms  must  be  given  to  the  verb,  to  denote  yesterday,  to - 
dajy,  to-morrow,  formerly,  lately,  just  now,  now,  imme- 
diately, presently,  soon,  hereafter,  &.C.  It  was  this  con- 
sideration that  made  the  adverbs  of  time  necessary,  over 
and  above  the  tenses. 


STYMOI.OGY.  tlS 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Of  Prepositions. 

*    Prepositions  serve  to  xjonnect  words  with  one 
smother,  and  to  show  the  relation  between  them. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  prepositions: 


Of 

into 

above 

at 

off 

to 

within 

below 

near 

on  or  upoit 

for 

without 

between 

up 

among 

by 

over 

beneath 

down 

after 

with 

under 

from 

before 

about 

in      ' 

through 

beyond 

behind 

againsty 

Verbs  are  often  compounded  of  a  verb  and  a  prepositioi^: 
'tis,  to  uphold,  to  invest,  to  overlook:  and  this  composition 
sometimes  gives  a  new  sense  to  the  verb;  as,  to  understand, 
to  withdraw,  to  forgive.  But  in  English,  the  preposition 
is  more  trequently  placed  i  ^ter  the  verb,  and  separately 
from  it^  like  an  adverb,  in  which  situation  it  is  not  less 
apt  to  affect  the  sense  of  it,  and  to  give  it  a  new  mean- 
ing; and  may  still  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  v,ei-b, 
and  as  a  part  of  it.  As,  to  cast,  is  to  throw;  but  to  cast 
up,  or  to  compute,  an  account,  is  c[uite  a  different  thing: 
thus,  to  fall  on,  to  bear  out,  to  give  over,  &c.  So  that 
tlie  meaning  of  the  verb,  and  the  jjropriety  of  the  phrase, 
depend  on  the  preposition  subjoined. 

In  the  composition  of  many  words,  there  are  certain 
syllables  employed,  which  Grammarians  have  called  in 
separable  prepositions:  as,  be,  con,  mis,  &c.  in  bedeck, 
conjoin,  mistake:  but  as  they  are  not  words  of  any  kind, 
they  cannot  properly  be  called  a  species  of  preposition. 

One  great  use  of  prepositions,  in  English,  is,  to  express 
-those  relations,  which,  in  some  languages,  are  chiefly 
marked  by  cases,  or  the  different  endings  pf  nouns.  See 
page  50.  The  necessity  and  use  of  them  will  appear 
from  the  following  examples.  If  we  say,  "he  writes  a. 
pen,"  "they  ran  the  river,"  ^*the  tower  feU  the  Greeks^,** 


il4  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.^ 

'•Lambeth  is  Westminster-abbey,"  there  is  observable 
in  each  of  these  expressions,  either  a  total  want  of  con- 
nexion, or  such  a  connexion  as  produces  falsehood  or 
nonsense:  and  it  is  evident,  that,  before  they  can  be 
mrned  into  sense,  the  vacancy  must  be  filled  up  by  some 
connecting  word^  as  thus,  ^'He  writes  with  a  pen;"' 
*'they  ran  totvards  the  river;"  "the  tower  fell  upon  the 
Greeks;"  ^'Lambeth  is  over  against  Westminster-abbey." 
We  see  by  these  instances,  how  prepositions  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  connect  those  words,  which  in  their  signifies 
lion  are  not  naturally  connected. 

Prepositions,  in  their  original  and  literal  acceptation^ 
seem  to  have  denoted  relations  of  place;  but  they  are 
»ow  used  figuratively,  to  express  other  relations,  for 
example,  as  they  who  are  above  have  in  several  respects 
rhe  advantage  of  such  as  are  below,  prepositions  express- 
ing high  and  low  places  are  used  for  superiority  and  in- 
feriority in  general:  as,  "He  is  above  disguise;"  "we 
serve  under  a  good  master;"  ''he  rules  over  a  willing 
people;"  "we  should  do  nothing  beneath  our  character." 

The  importance  of  the  prepositions  will  be  further  per- 
ceived by  the  explanation  of  a  few  of  them. 

Of  denotes  possession  or  belonging,  an  effect  or  con- 
sequence, and  other  relations  connected  with  these:  as* 
"The  house  of  my  friend;"  that  is,  "the  house  belonging 
to  my  friend;"  "He  died  o/'a  fever;"  that  is,  "in  conse- 
quence of  a  fever." 

To,  or  untOy  is  opposed  to  from;  as,  "He  rode  from 
Salisbury  to  AVinchester."  , 

For  indicates  the  cause  or  motive  of  any  action  or  cir- 
cumstance, &:c.  as,  "He  loves  her/or  (that  is,  on  account 
of)  her  amiable  qualities." 

By  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  the  cause,  agent, 
means,  &c.;  as,  "He  was  killed  by  a  fall:"  that  is,  "a  fall 
was  the  cause  of  his  being  killed;"  "This  house  was 
built  by  him;"  that  is,  "He  was  the  builder  of  it." 

IVith  denotes  the  act  of  accompanying,  uniting,  &c..: 
as,  "We  will  go  with  you;"  "They  are  on  ^ood  terms 
with  each  other." — With  also  alludes  to  the  instrument 
or  means;  as,  "He  was  cut  with  a  knife." 

In  relates  to  time,  place,  the  state  or  manner  of  being 
or  acting,  &c»:  as,  "He  was  born  in  (that  is,  during)  tihti 


ETYMOLOGY.  '  115 

jear  1720;"  "He  dwells  in  the  city;"  "She  lives  in 
Affluence." 

Into  is  used  after  verbs  that  imply  motion  of  any  kind: 
as,  "He  retired  into  the  country;"  '*Copper  is  converted 
into  brass." 

JVithin^  relates  to  something  comprehended  in  any 
place  or  time:  as,  '*They  are  within  the  house;"  "He 
be»an  and  finished  his  work  within  the  limited  time." 

The  signification  of  ivithout  is  opposite  to  that  o[  within: 
as,  "She  stands  without  the  gate:"  But  it  is  more  fre- 
fluently  opposed  to  ivithj  as,  "You  may  go  without  me." 

The  import  and  force  of  the  remaining  prepositions 
will  be  readily  understood,  without  a  particular  detail  of 
diem.  We  shall,  therefore,  conclude  this  head  with  ob- 
serving, that  there  is  a  peculiar  propriety  in  distin^ishr 
ing  {he  use  of  the  prepositions  by  and  tvith:  which  is 
observable  in  sentences  like  the  following:  "He  walks 
with  a  staff  %  moonlight;"  "He  was  taken  by  stratagem, 
rind  killed  with  a  sword."  Put  the  one  preposition  for 
tlie  other,  and  say,  "he  walks  by  a  staff*  ivith  moonlight;" 
••he  was  taken  with  stratagem,  and  killed  by  a  sword;" 
and  it  will  appear,  that  they  differ  in  signification  more 
than  one,  at  first  view,  would  be  apt  to  imagine. 

Some  of  the  prepositions  have  the  appearance  and  effect 
of  conjunctions;  as,  ^^^fter  their  prisons  were  thrown 
open,"  &c.  '^Before  I  die;"  "They  made  haste  to  be 
])rcpared  against  their  friends  arrived:"  but  if  the  noun 
tune,  which  is  understood,  be  added,  they  will  lose  their 
conjunctive  form;  as,  "After  [the  time  when]  their  pri- 
sons," &c. 

The  prepositions  after,  before,  above,  beneath,  and  seve- 
ral others,  sometimes  appear  to  be  adverbs,  and  may  be  so 
considered:  as,  "They  had  their  reward  soon  a/ye?';'"  "He 
died  not  lon^before;^-  "He  dwells  above:^^  but  if  the  nouns 
time  and  place  be  added,  they  will  lose-  their  adverbial 
form;  as,  "He  died  not  long  before  that  time,''^  &c 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Of  Conjunctions. 

•  A  Conjunction  is  a  part  of  speech  that  is  chie^f 
used  to  connect  sentences;  so  as,  out  of  two  or  more 


116  ENGLISIt  GRAMMAR. 

sentences,  to  make  but  one.  It  sometimes  connect) 
only  words. 

Conjunctions  are  principally  divided  into  two  sort? 
the  COPULATIVE  and  the  disjunctive. 

The  Conjunction  Copulative  serves  to  connect  oj 
fo  continue  a  sentence,  by  expressing  an  addition,  ; 
supposition,  a  cause,  &c.:  as,  ''He  and  his  brothe 
reside  in  London;''  "I  will  go  if  he  will  accompany 
me:"  "You  are  happy,  because  you  are  good." 

The  Conjunction  Disjunctive  serves,  not  only  to  con 
nect  and  continue  the  sentence,  but  also  to  express  op 
position  of  meaning  in  different  degrees:  as,  ^'Thougi 
he  was  frequently  reproved,  yet  he  did  not  reform;' 
''They  came  with  her,  but  they  went  away  withou 
her." 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  Conjunctions 

The  Copulative.  And,  if,  that,  both,  then,  since,  for 
because,  therefore,  wherefore. 

The  Disjunctive.  But,  or,  nor,  as,  than,  lest,  though 
unless,  either,  neither,  yet,  notwithstanding,  y" 

I'he  same  word  is  occasionally  used  both  as  a  c^unc 
tion  and  as  an  adverb;  and  sometimes,  as  a  preposition 
"I  rest  then  upon  this  argument;"  then  is  here  a  con 
junction:  in  the  following  phrase,  it  is  an  adverb;  "H< 
arrived  then,  and  not  before."  "I  submitted;  for  it  wa 
Vain  to  resist:"  in  this  sentence,  for  is  a  conjunction 
in  the  next,  it  is  a  preposition;  "He  contended  for  vie 
tory  only."  In  the  first  of  the  following  sentences,  sine 
is  a  conjunction;  in  the  second,  it  is  a  preposition;  ant 
in  the  third,  an  adverb:  ''Since  we  must  part,  let  us  di 
it  peaceably:"  "I  have  not  seen  him  since  that  time:' 
"Our  friendship  commenced  long  since,^^ 

Relative  pronouns  as  well  as  conjunctions,  serve  t( 
connect  sentences:  as,  "Blessed  is  the  man  who  fearetl 
the  Lord,  and  keepeth  his  commandments." 

A  relative  pronoun  possesses  the  force  both  of  a  pronoui 
and  a  connective.  Nay,  the  union  by  relatives  is  rathe 
closer,  than  that  by  mere  conjunctions.  The  latter  maj 
form  two  or  more  sentences  into  one;  but,  by  the  former 
several  sentences  may  incorporate  in  one  and  the  sam< 
cfause  of  a  sentence.    Thus,  thou  seest  a  man,  and  he  ii 


ETYMOLOGT.  117 

IcsiUed  Peter,"  is  a  sentence  consisting  of  two  distinct 
clauses  united  by  the  copulative  and:  but,  "the  man  whom 
thou  seest  is  called  Peter,"  is  a  sentence  of  one  clause, 
and  not  less  comprehensive  than  the  other. 

Conjunctions  very  often  unite  sentences,  when  the^ 
appear  to  unite  only  words;  as  in  the  following  instances' 
"Duty  and  interest  forbid  vicious  indulgences;"  "Wis 
dom  or  folly  governs  us."  Each  of  these  forms  of  ex 
pression  contains  two  sentences,  namely;  "Duty  forbid* 
vicious  indulgences;  interest  forbids  vicious  indulgen 
ces;"  "Wisdom  governs  us,  or  folly  governs  us." 

Though  the  conjunction  is  commonly  used  to  connect 
sentences  together,  yet,  on  some  occasions,  it  merely 
connects  words,  not  sentences;  as,  ^'The  king  and  queen 
are  an  amiable  pair;"  where  the  affirmation  cannot  refer 
to  each;  it  being  absurd  to  say,  that  the  king  or  the  queen 
only  is  an  amiable  pair.  So  in  the  instances,  "two  and 
two  are  four;"  "the  fifth  and  sixth  volumes  will  complete 
th^  §et  of  books."  Prepositions  also,  as  before  observed, 
connect  words;  but  they  do  it  tc  sh'J*y  th6  jelation  wluch 
the  connected  words  have  to  each  other:  conjunctions, 
when  they  unite  words  only,  are  designed  to  show  the 
relations,  which  those  words,  so  united,  have  to  other 
parts  of  the  sentence. 

As  there  are  many  conjunctions  and  connective  phrases 
appropriated  to  the  coupling  of  sentences,  that  are  never 
employed  in  joining  the  members  of  a  sentence;  so  there 
are  several  conjunctions  appropriated  to  the  latter  use, 
which  are  never  employed  in  the  former;  and  some  tliat 
are  equally  adapted  to  both  those  purposes:  as,  agairu 
further,  besides,  &c.  of  the  first  kind;  than,  lest,  unlens, 
that,  so  that,  &c.  of  the  second;  and  but,  and,  for,  there- 
fore, &c.  of  the  last. 

We  shall  close  this  chapter  w  ith  a  few  observations  on 
the  peculiar  use  and  advantage  of  the  conjunctions;  a 
subject  which  will,  doubtless,  ^ive  pleasure  to  the  inge 
nious  student,  and  expand  his  views  of  the  importance  of 
his  grammatical  studies. 

"Relatives  are  not  so  useful  in  language,  as  conjunc- 
tions. The  former  make  speech  more  concise;  the  latter 
make  it  more  explicit.  Relatives  comprehend  the  meao- 
ing  of  a  pronoun  and  conjunction  copulative:  conjunctions. 


118  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

while  they  couple  sentences,  may  also  express  opposition, 
inference,  and  many  other  relations  and  dependences. 

Till  men  began  to  think  in  a  train,  and  to  carry  their 
reasonings  to  a  considerable  length,  it  is  not  probable  that 
they  would  make  much  use  of  conjunctions,  or  of  any 
other  connectives.  Ignorant  people,  and  children,  ge- 
nerally speak  in  short  and  separate  sentences.  Ine 
same  thing  is  true  of  barbarous  nations:  and  hence  un- 
cultivated languages  are  not  well  supplied  with  connect- 
ing particles.  The  Greeks  were  the  greatest  reasoners 
that  ever  appeared  in  the  world;  and  their  language, 
accordingly,  abounds  more  than  any  other  in  conm- 
•tives. 

Conjunctions  are  not  equally  necessary  in  all  sorts  of 
writing.  In  poetry,  where  great  conciseness  of  phrase  is 
required,  and  every  appearance  of  formality  avoided, 
many  of  them  would  have  a  bad  effect.  In  passionate 
language  too,  it  may  be  proper  to  omit  them:  because  it 
is  the  nature  of  violent  passion,  to  speak  rather  in  dis- 
jointed, sentences,  than  in  the  way  of  inference  and 
argument.  Books  of  aphorisms,  like  the  Proverbs  of 
Solomon,  have  few  connectives;  because  they  instruct, 
not  by  reasoning,  but  in  detached  observations.  And 
narrative  will  sometimes  appear  very  graceful,  when  the 
circumstances  are  plainly  told,  with  scarcely  any  other 
conjunction  than  the  simple  copulative  and:  which  is 
frequently  the  case  in  the  historical  parts  of  Scripture. 
AVhen  narration  is  full  of  images  or  events,  the  omission 
of  connectives  may,  by  crowding  the  principal  words 
upon  one  another,  give  a  sort  of  picture  of  hurry  and 
tumult,  and  so  heighten  the  vivacity  of  description.  But. 
when  facts  are  to  be  traced  down  through  their  conse- 
quences, or  upwards  to  their  causes;  when  the  compli- 
cated designs  of  mankind  are  to  be  laid  open,  or  conjec- 
tures offered  concerning  them;  when  the  historian  argues 
either  for  the  elucidation  of  truth,  or  in  order  to  state 
the  pleas  and  principles  of  contending  parties;,  there 
will  be  occasion  for  every  species  of  connective,  as  much 
as  in  philosophy  itself.  In  fact,  it  is  in  argument,  investi- 
gation, and  science,  that  this  p^rt  of  speech  is  peculiarly 
and  indispensably  necessary. ' 


"ETTTMOLOGT.  Ii9 

CHAPTER  X. 

Of  Interjections, 

Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  passions  or  emotions 
bf  the  speaker:  as,  '^Oh!  I  have  alienated  my  friend; 
alas!  I  fear  for  life:"  *^0  virtue!  how  amiable  thou 
art!" 

The  English  Interjections,  as  well  as  those  of  other 
'languages,  are  comprised  within  a  small  €ompass.  They 
are  of  different  sorts,  according  to  the  different  passions 
which  they   serve  to  express.    Those   which  mtimate 


-eally!  strange!  Of  calling, 
disgust, /o^.'/e/  away!  Of  a  call  of  the  attention,  lo!  ht- 
hold!  hofrk!  Of  requesting  silence,  hush!  hist!  Of  salutation, 
welcome!  hail!  all  hail!  Besides  these,  several  others,  fre- 
quent in  the  mouths  of  the  multitude,  might  be  enume- 
rated; but,  in  a  grammar  of  a  cultivated  tongue,  it  is  un- 
necessary to  expatiate  on  such  expressions  of  passion,  as 
are  scarcely  worthy  of  being  ranked  among  the  branches 
^f  artificial  language. — See  the  Octavo  Grammar. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

OF   DERIVATION. 

-  MOTION  1.     Of  the  various  ways  in  which  words  are 
derived  from  one  another. 

Having  treated  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  an^ 
their  various  modifications,  which  is  the  first  part  of  Ety- 
mology, it  is  now  proper  to  explain  the  methods  by  which 
one  word  is  derived  from  another. 

Words  are  derived  from  one  another  in  various  wajg; 
aij. 

!.  Substantives  are  derived  from  verbs. 

•2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjective9>  aHil. 
6f  mitimes  from  adverbs. 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives. 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

5.  Adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives. 


120  ENGLISH  GRAMMAil. 

1.  Substantives  are  derived  from  verbs:  as,  from  **to 
lovC)"  comes  "lover;"  from  '*to  visit,  visiter;"  from  "to 
survive,  surviver,"  &c.  , 

In  the  following  instances,  and  in  many  others,  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  vrhether  the  verb  was  deduced 
from  the  noun,  or  the  noun  from  the  verb,  viz.  "Love,  to 
love;  hate,  to  hate;  fear,  to  fear;  sleep,  to  sleep;  walk, 
to  walk;  ride,  to  ride;  act,  to  act,"  &c. 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and 
sometimes  from  adverbs:  as,  from  the  substantive  salt, 
comes  "to  salt;"  from  the  adjective  warm,  "to  warm;" 
and  from  the  adverb /bri^«r(i,  "to  forward."  Sometimes 
they  are  formed  by  lengthening  the  vowel,  or  softening 
the  consonant;  as,  from  "grass,  ^  graze:"  sometimes  by 
adding  en;  as,  from  "length,  to  lengthen;"  especially  to 
adjectives:  as,  from  "short,  to  shorten;  bright,  to 
brighten.'' 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives,  in  the  fol- 
lowing  manner:  Adjectives  denoting  plenty  are  derived 
from  substantives  by  addin*  v:  as,  from  "Health,  healthy; 
wealth,  wealthy;  might,  mighty,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  the  matter  out  of  which  any  thing 
is  made,  are  derived  from  substantives  by  adding  en: 
as,  from  "Oak,  oaken;  wood,  wooden;  wool,  wool- 
len," &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  abundance  are  derived  from  sub- 
stantives, by  addingyw/.*  as,  from  "Joy,  joyful;  sin,  sin- 
ful; fruit,  fruitful,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  plenty,  but  with  some  kind  of 
diminution,  are  derived  from  substantives,  by  adding 
sdme:  as,  from  "Light,  lightsome;  trouble,  troublesome; 
toil,  toilsome,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  want  are  derived  from  substan- 
tives, by  adding  less:  as,  from  "Worth,  worthless;" 
from  "care,  careless;  joy,  joyless,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  likeness  are  derived  from  sub- 
stantives, by  adding  ly:  as,  from  "Man,  manly;  earth, 
earthly;  court,  courtly,"  &c. 

Some  adjectives  are  derived  from  other  adiectives,  or 
/rom  substantive?,  by  adding  ish  to  them;  which  termi*. 
nation  when  added  to  adjectives,  imports  diminution,  or 


ETYMOLOGY.  121 

lessening  the  quality:  as,  <*  White,  whitish;"  i.e.  some- 
what white.  When  added  to  substantives,  it  signifies 
Similitude  or  tendency  to  a  character:  as,  "Child,  child- 
ish; thief,  thievish." 

Some  adjectives  are  formed  from  substantives  or  verbs, 
by  adding  the  termination  able;  and  those  adjectives 
signify  capacity:  as,  '* Answer,  answerable;  to  changCrt 
changeable. " 

,  4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives,  sometimes 
by  adding  the  termination  ness:  as,  "White,  whiteness; 
swift,  swiftness:"  sometimes  by  adding  th  or  t,  and 
making  a  small  change  in  some  oi  the  letters:  as,  "Long^ 
length;  high,  height." 

5.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  derived  from  adjectives,  by 
adding  ly,  or  changing  le  into  ly;  and  denote  the  same 
quality  as  the  adjectives  from  which  they  are  derived: 
as,  from  "base,"  comes  "basely;"  from  "slow,  slowly;-'' 
iVom  "able,  ably."      -^ 

There  are  so  many  other  ways  of  deriving  words  from 
Aiwe,  another,  that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult,  and 
nearly  impossible,  to  enumerate  them.  The  primitive 
words  of  any  language  are^very  few;  the  derivatives  form 
much  the  greater  numbei^.^  A  few  more  instances  only 
can  be  given  here. 

Some  substantives  are  derived  from  other  substantives, 
by  adding  the  terminations  hond. or  head,  ship,  ery,  wick, 
rick,  dom,  ian,  nient,  and  age. 

Substantives  ending  mhood  or  head,  are  such  as  signify 
character  or  qualities:  as,  "Manhood,  knighthood,  false- 
hood," &c. 

Substantives  ending  in  ship,a.ve  those  that  signify  office^ 
employment,  state,  or  condition:  as,  *^*Lordship, steward- 
ship, partnership,"  &c.  Some  substantives  in  ship,  are 
derived  from  adjunctives:  as,  **Hard,  hardship,"  &c. 

Substantives  which  end  in  ery,  signify  action  or  habit: 
as,  ^'Slavery^  foolery,  prudery,"  &c.  Some  substantive? 
of  this  sort  come  from  adjectives;  as, '*Brave,  bravery," 
&c. 

Substantives  ending  in  wick,  rick,  and  dom,  denote  do- 
minion, jurisdiction,  or  condition:  as,  "Bailiwick,  bishop- 
rick,  kingdoi;),  dukedom,  freedom,"  &c. 
L 


1 


J  22  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Substantives  wliich  end  in  ian,  are  those  that  signify 
profession;  as,  "Physician,  musician,"  &c.  Those  that 
end  in  mm^and  «^e,  come  generally  from  the  French, 
and  commonly  signify  the  act  or  habit:  as,  *  "•Command- 
ment, usage." 

Some  substantives  ending  in  m^d,  are  derived  from 
verbs  or  adjectives,  and  denote  character  or  habit:  as, 
**Drunk,  drunkard;  dote,  dotard." 

Some  substantives  have  the  form  of  diminutives;  bu 
these  are  not  many.     They  are  formed  by  adding  the 
terminations,  kiyi,  ling^  ing,  ock,  c/,  and  the  like:  as, 
^^Lamb,  lambkin;  goose,  gosling;  duck,  duckling;   hill, 
hillock;  cock,  cockerel,"  &c. 

That  part  of  derivation  which  consists  in  tracing  Eng- 
lish words  to  the  Saxon,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  other 
languages,  must  be  omitted,  as  the  EnglisJi  scholar  is  not 
supposed  to  be  acquainted  with  these  languages.  The 
best  English  dictionaries  will,  however,  furnish  some  in- 
formation on  this  head,  to  those  who  are  desirous  of  ob- 
taining it.  The  learned  Home  Tooke,  in  his  "Diversions 
of  Purley,"  has  given  an  ingenious  account  of  the  deri- 
vation and  meaning  of  many  of  the  adverbs,  conjunctions, 
and  preposijtions.  # 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  system  of  this  acute  gram- 
marian, is  founded  in  truth;  and  that  adverbs,  preposi- 
tions, and  conjunctions,  are  corruptions  or  abbreviation* 
of  other  parts  of  speech.  But  as  many  of  them  are  derived 
from  obsolete  words  in  our  own  language,  or  from  words 
in  kindred  languages,  the  radical  meaning  of  which  is, 
therefore,  either  obscure,  or  generally  unknown;  as  the 
system  of  this  very  able  etymologist  is  not  universally 
admitted^  and  as,  by  long  prescription,  whatever  may 
have  been  their  origin,  the  words  in  question  appear  to 
have  acquired  a  title  to  the  rank  of  distinct  species;  it 
seems  proper  to  consider  them,  as  such,  in  an  elementary 
treatise  of  grammar:  especially  as  this  plan  coincides 
with  that,  by  which  other  languages  must  be  taught;  and 
will  render  the  study  of  them  less  intricate.  It  is  of 
smadl  moment,  by  what  names  and  classification  we  dis- 
tinguish these  words,  provided  their  meaning  and  use 
are  well  understood.  A  philosophical  consideration  of 
i-w^he  subject,  may,  with  great  propriety,  be  entered  upon 


ETYMOLOGr.'  125 

by  the  grammatical  student,  when  his  knowledge  and 
judgment  become  more  improved. 


Section  2.     Ji  sketch  of  the  steps,  by  which  the  English 
Language  has  risen  to  its  present  state  of  refinement. 

Before  we  conclude  the  subject  of  derivation,  it  will 
probably  be  gratifying  to  the  curious  scholar,  to  be  in- 
formed of  some  particulars  respecting  the  origin  of  the 
English  language,  and  the  various  nations  to  which  it  is 
indebted  for  the  copiousness,  elegance,  and  refinement, 
which  it  has  now  attained. 

"When  the  ancient  Britons  were  so  harassed  and 
oppressed  by  the  invasions  of  their  northern  neighbours, 
the  Scots  and  Picts,  that  their  situation  was  tnuy  mise- 
rable, they  sent  an  embassy  (about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century)  to  the  Saxons,  a  warlike  people  inhabiting  the 
north  of  Germany,  with  solicitations  for* speedy  relief. 
The  Saxons  accordingly  came  over  to  Britain,  and  were 
successful  in  repelling  the  incursions  of  the  Scots  and 
Picts;  but  seeing  the  weak  and  defenceless  state  of  the 
Britons,  they  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  it;  and  at 
length  established  themselves  in  the  greaterpart  of  South- 
Britain,  after  having  dispossessed  the  original  inhabitants. 

"From  these  barbarians,  who  founded  several  petty 
kingdoms  in  this  island,  and  introduced  their  own  laws, 
language,  and  manners,  is  derived  the  groundwork  of 
the  English  language;  which,  even  in  its  present  state  of 


displays  very  conspicuous 
Saxon  original. 

"The  Saxons  did  not  long  remain  in  quiet  possession  of 
the  kingdom;  for  before  the  middle  of  the^mth  century, 
the  Danes,  a  hardy  and  adventurous  nation,  who  had  long 
infested  the  northern  seas  with  their  piracies,  began  to 
ravage  the  English  coasts.  Their  first  attempts  were, 
in  general,  attended  with  such  success,  that  they  were 
encouraged  to  a  renewal  of  their  ravages;  till,  at  length, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  they  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  greater  part  of  England. 


1:24  EN&LISH  GRAMMAR. 

"Though  the  period,  during  which  these  invader* 
occupied  the  English  throne,  was  very  short,  not  greatly 
exceeding  half  a  century,  it  is  highly  probable  that  some 
change  was  introduced  by  them  into  the  language  spoken 
hy  those,  whom  they  hacl  subdued:  but  this  change  can- 
itot  be  supposed  to  have  been  very  considerable,  as  the 
Danish  and  Saxon  language*  arose  from  one  common 
source,  the  Gothic  being  the  parent  of  botli. 

"The  next  conquerors  of  this  kingdom,  after  the  Danes, 
were  the  Nonnans,  who,  in  the  year  1066,  introduced 
their  leader  William  to  the  possession  of  the  English 
throne.   This  prince,  soon  after  his  accession,  endeavour- 
ed to  bring  his  own  language  (the  Norman-French)  int" 
>i9e  among  his. new  subjects;  but  his  efforts  were  not  ver^ 
SMCcessful,  as  the  Saxons  entertained  a  gi'eat  antipath' 
to  these  haughty  foreigners.  In  process  oitime,  howevet 
many  Norman  words  and  phrases  were  incorporated  into 
the  Saxon  language:  but  its  general  form  and  construc- 
tion still  remained  tlie  same. 

"From  the  Conquest  to  the  Reformation,  the  languag* 
continued   to  receive  occasional  accessions  of  foreign 
word's,  till  it  acquired  such  a  degree  of  copiousness  and 
strength,  as  to  render  it  susceptible  of  that  polish,  whicl 
it  has  received  from  writers  of  taste  and  genius,  in  tin 
last  and   present   centuries.     During  this  period,  tlv 
learned  have  enriched  it  with  many  significant  expre^ 
sions,  drawn  from  tiie  treasures  of  Greek  and  Roman 
literature;  the  ingenious  and  tlie  fashionable  have  im- 
ported occasional  supplies  of  French,  Spanish,  Italiai^ 
and  German  words,  gt^aned  during  their  foreign  excur 
sions;  and  the  connexions  which  we  maintain,  through 
the  medium  of  government  and  commerce,  witK  many 
remote  nations,  have  made  some  additions  to  our  native 
vocabulary. 

"In  this  manner  did  the  ancient  language  ^the  An»lo- 
Saxons  proceed,  through  the  various  stages  of  innovation, 
and  the  several  gradations  of  refinement,  to  the  forma- 
lion  of  the  present  English  tongue." 

See  the  Twelfth  chapter  of  the  Octavo  Grammar^ 


(    125    ) 

PART  III. 

SYNTAX. 

The  third  part  of  grammar  is  Syntax,  which  treats 
of  the  agreement  and  construction  of  words  in  a  sen- 
tence. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  forming  a 
complete  sense. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  has  in, it  but  one  subject,  apd 
one  finite*  verb:  as,  *'Life  is  short." 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
simple  sentences  connected  together:  as,  *^Life  is 
short,  and  art  is  long;"  **Idleness  produces  want, 
vice,  and  misery." 

As  sentences  themselves  are  divided  into  simple  and 
compound,  so  the  members  of  sentences  may  be  divided 
likewise  into  simple  and  compound  members:  for  whole 
sentences,  whether  simple  or  compounded,  may  become 
members  of  other  sentences,  by  means  of  some  additional 
connexion;  as  in  the  followinj^  example:  '"The  ox  know- 
eth  his  owner,  and  the  ass  his  mastei-'s  crib;  but  Israel 
doth  not  know,  my  people  do  not  consider."  This  sen- 
tence consists  of  two  compounded  members,  j^ch  of 
which  is  subdivided  into  two  simple  members,  wlifch  are 
properly  called  clauses. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  simple  sentences;  the  expHco' 
Hue,  or  explaining;  the  interrogative,  or  asking;  the  im- 
perative, or  commanding. 

An  explicative  sentence  is  when  a  thing  is  said  to  be 
or  not  to  be,  to  do  or  not  to  do,  to  suffer  or  not  to  suffer, 
in  a  direct  manner:  as,  "I  am;  thou  writest;  Thomas  is 
loved."  If  the  sentence  be  neo;ative,  the  adverb  not  is 
placed  after  tlie  auxiliary,  or  after  the  verb  itself  when 
it  has  no  auxiliary:  as,  "I  did  not.  touch  him;"  or,  "J 
touched  him  not." 

*  Finite  verlte  are  Ujose  to  which  number  and  person  appertaiii.  Verbs  in  Uia 
injinitivt  mood  have  tio  respect  to  number  ov  persoii,  %^, 

L2  m 


1'2G  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [Rule  1, 

In  art  interrogative  sentence,  or  when  a  question  is 
asked,  the  nominative  case  follows  the  principal  verb  or 
the  auxiliary:  as,  "Was  it  he?"  "Did  Alexander  conquer 
the  Persians?" 

In  an  imperative  sentence,  when  a  thing  is  commanded 
to  be,  to  do,  to  suffer,  or  not,  the  nominative  case  likewise 
follows  the  verb  or  the  auxiliary:  as,  "Go,  thou  traitor!" 
''Do  thou  go:"  "Haste  ye  away:"  unless  the  verb  let  be 
used;  as,  "Let  us  be  gone." 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  toge- 
ther, making  sometimes  part  of  a  sentence,  and 
sometimes  a  whole  sentence. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  are,  the 
subject,  the  attribute,  and  the  object. 

The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of;  the  at- 
tribute is  the  thing  or  action  affirmed  or  denied  of  it; 
and  Ihe  object  is  the  thing  affected  by  such  action. 

The  nominative  denotes  the  subject,  and  usually 
goes  before  the  verb  or  attribute;  and  the  word  oi 
phrase,  denoting  the  object,  follows  the  verb;  as, 
**A  wise  man  governs  his  passions."  Here,  a  wise 
man  is  the  subject;  governs,  the  attribute,  or  thing 
affirmed;  and  his  passions,  the  object. 

Syntax  principally  consists  of  two  parts,  Concord 
and  Government. 

Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  w^ord  has  with 
another,  in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person. 

Government  is  that  power  which  one  part  of  speech 
has  over  another,  in  directing  its  mood,  tense,  or  case. 

To  produce  the  agreement  and  right  disposition  of 
\^ords  in  a  sentence,  the  following  rules  and  obser- 
vations should  be  carefully  studied. 


RULE  L 

A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case,  in 
number  and  person:  as,  "I  learn;''  ^'Thou  art  im- 
J^roved;''  ''The  birds  sing." 

The  following  are  a  few  instances  of  the  violation  of 
this  rule.  "What  signifies  good  opinions,  when  our  pi^c* 


RulC^l.]  SYNTAX.  l^f 

tice  ift  bad?"  <*what  signifi/,^^  "There's  two  or  three  of 
us,  who  have  seen  the  work:"  "there  ffr6."  "We  may 
suppose  there  was  more  impostors  than  one:"  "there  were 
more."  "I  have  considered  what  have  been  said  on  both 
sides  in  this  controversy:"  "what  has  been  said."  "If 
thou  would  be  healtliy,  live  temperately:"  "if  thou 
lOouldsty  "Thou  sees  how  little  has  been  done:"  "thou 
seestJ^^  "Though  thou  cannot  do  much  for  the  cause,  thou 
may  and  should  do  something:"  ^^ canst  not,  mayst,  and 
shouldst.^^  "Full  many  a  flower  are  born  to  blush  un- 
seen:" "is  born."  "A  conformity  of  inclinations  and 
qualities  prepare  us  for  friendship:"  ^'prepares  us."  "A 
variety  of  blessings  have  been  conferred  upon  us:"  ''has 
been."  "In  piety  and  virtue  consist  the  liappiness  of 
man:"  ''consists,-^  "To  these  precepts  are  subjoined  a 
copious  selection  of  rules  and  maxims:"  "^5  subjoined." 

^  1.*  The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  is  some- 
times put  as  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb:  as,  "To  see 
the  sun  is  pleasant;"  "To  be  good  is  to  be  happy; V "A 
desire  to  excel  others  in  learning  and  virtue  is  commend- 
able;" "That  warm  climates  should  accelerate  the  growtii, 
Qf  the  human  body,  and  shorten  its  duration,  is  very  rea- 
sonable to  believe;"  "To  be  temperate  in  eating  and 
drinking,  to  use  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  to  preserve 
tlie  mind  free  from  tumultuous  emotions,  are  the  best 
preservatives  of  health." 

"  2.  Every  verb,  except  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  the 
participle,  ought  to  have  a  nominative  case,  either  ex- 
pressed or  implied:  as,  "Awake;  arise;"  that  is,  "Awake 
ye;  arise  ye."V 

We  shall  here  add  some  examples  of  inaccuracy^  ia 
the  use  of  the  verb  without  its  nominative  case.  "As  it 
hath  pleased  him  of  his  goodness  to  give  you  safe  deli 
verance,  and  hath  preserved  you  in  the  great  danger," 
&:c.  The  xarh ''hath  preserved,^^  has  here  no  nominative 
case,  for  it  cannot  be  properly  supplied  by  the  preceding 
word,  "him,''^  which  is  in  the  objective  case.  It  ought  to 
be,  "and  as  he  hath  preserved  you;''^  or  rather,  "and  to 
preserve  you."     "If  the  calm  in  which  he  was  born,  and 

*^  The  chief  practical  notes  under  eacli  Rale,  are  regularly  nurobere*!,  in  order' 
io  make  them  correspond  to  the  exaiuples  iB  the  voliiine  ot  Exercises, 


128  ENGLtBH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  1. 

fasted  so  long,  had  continued;"  ''and  which  lasted,"  &c. 
"These  we  have  extracted  from  an  historian  of  undoubted 
credit,  and  are  the  same  that  were  practised,"  &c.;  ***and 
they  are  the  same."  *'A  man  whose  inclinations  led  him 
to  be  corrupt,  and  had  great  abilities  to  manage  the  bu- 
siness;" "and  who  had,"  &c.  "A  cloud  gathering  in  the 
noFth;  which  we  have  helped  to  raise,  and  may  quickly 
break  in  a  storm  upon  our  heads;"  *'and  which  maj 
quickly." 

-3.  Every  nominative  case,  except  the  case  absolute, 
and  when  an  address  is  made  to  a  person,  should  belong 
i»  some  verb,  either  expressed  or  implied:   as,  "Who, 
wrote  this  book?"    "James;"  that  is,  "James  wrote  it." 
"To  whom  thus  Adam,"  that  is,  "spoke.''^ 

One  or  two  instances  of  the  improper  use  of  the  nomi- 
•native  case,  without  any  verb,  expressed  or  implied,  to 
answer  it,  may  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  usefulness 
of  the  preceding  observation. 

"Which  rule,  if  it  had  been  observed,  a  neighbouring 
prince  would  have  wauted  a  great  deal  of  that  incetjse 
which  hath  been  offered  up  to  him."  The  pronoun  it  is 
here  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  "observed;"  and 
which  rule,  is  left  by  itself,  a  nominative  case  without 
any  verb  following  it  This  form  of  expression,  though 
improper,  is  very  common.  It  ought  to  be,  ^'j^  this  rule 
had  been  observed,"  &c.  "Man,  though  he  has  great 
variety  of  thoughts,  and  such  from  which  others  as  well 
as  himself  might  receive  profit  and  delight,  yet  they  ar^ 
all  within  his  own  breast."  In  this  sentence,  the  nomi- 
native man  stands  alone  and  unconnected  with  any  verb, 
either  expressed  or  implied.  It  should  be,  "Though  man 
has  great  variety,"  &c. 

^  4.  When  a  verb  comes  between  two  nouns,  either  of 
which  may  be  understood  as  the  subject  of  the  affirmation, 
it  may  agree  with  either  of  tliem:  but  some  regard  must 
be  had  to  that  which  is  more  naturally  the  subject  of  it, 
as  also  to  that  which  stands  next  to  the  verb:  as,  *'His 
meat  was  locusts  and  wild  honey;"^"A  great  cause  of 
the  low  state  of  industry  were  the  restraints  put  upon  it;" 
"The  wages  of  sin  is  death." 

^  5.  When  the  nominative  case  has  no  personal  tense  of 


Rule  1. 3  ,  SYNTAX.  129 

a^verllvb"^  is  put  before  a  participle,  independently  on 
the  rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  called  the  case  absolute: 
as,  "Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost;'^*'That  havinjj 
been  discussed  long  ago,  there  is  no  occasion  to  resume 
it."" 

*^As  in  the  use  of  the  case  absolute,  the  case  is,  in  Eng- 
lish, always  the  nominative\the  following  example  is  er- 
roneous, in  making  it  ihe  objective,  "Solomon  was  of 
this  mind;  and  I  have  no  doubt  he  made  as  wise  and  true 
proverbs,  as  any  body  has  done  since;  him  only  excepted, 
who  was  a  much  greater  and  wiser  man  than  Solomon." 
It  should  be,  ''he  only  excepted." 


^-The  nominative  case  is  commonly  placed  before  the 
verb;  but  sometimes  it  is  put  after  the  verb^if  it  is  a 
simple  tense;  and  between  the  auxiliary,  and  the  verb  or 
participle,  if  a  compound  tense:  as, 

1st,  When  a  question  is  asked,  a  command  given,  or  a 
wish  expressed:  as,"Confidest  thou  in  me?"  "Read  thou:" 
**Mayst  thou  be  happy!"  <'Long  live  the  King!" 

2d,  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  the  conjunc- 
tion if:  as,  "Were  it  not  for  this;"  "Had  I  been  there/' 

3d,  When  a  verb  neuter  is  used:  as,  "On  a  suddeu 
appeared  the  king." 

4th,  When  the  verb  is  preceded  by  the  adverbs,  here, 
fhere,  then,  thence,  hence,  thus,  &c.:  as,  "Here  am  I;" 
"There  was  he  slain;"  "Then  cometh  the  end;J'  "Tlience 
ariseth  his  grief;"  "Hence  proceeds  his  anger;"  "Thus 
was  the  aifair  settled." 

5th,  When  a  sentence  depends  on  neither  or  nor,  so  as 
to  be  coupled  with  another  sentence:  as,  "Ye  shall  not 
cat  of  it,  neither  shall  ye  touch  it,  lest  ye  die," 

Some  grammarians  assert,  that  the  plirases,  asfollowSy 
as  appeal's,  form  what  are  called  impersonal  verbs;  and- 
should,  therefore,  be  confined  to  the  smgular  number:  as^ 
**The  ar^ments  advanced  were  nearly  as  foU^yws;^" 
•"The  positions  were  as  appears  incontrovertible:"  that  is, 
'*as  it  follows,"  "as  it  appears."  If  we  give  (say  they) 
the  sentence  a  different  turn,  and  instead  of  as,  say  such 
«*.  the  verb  is  no  longer  te'rmed  impersonal;  but  properly 


130  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [^RuiC  ■ 

agrees  with  its  nominative,  in  the  plural  number:  a-. 
"The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  such  as  follow;-' 
"The  positions  were  such  as  appear  incontrovertible.'' 

They  who  doubt  the  accuracy  of  Home  Tooke's  state- 
ment, "That  as,  however  and  whenever  used  in  English, 
means  the  same  as  it,  or  thah  or  which;^^  and  who  are  not 
satisfied  whether  the  verbs,  in  the  sentence  first  men- 
tioned, should  be  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  number, 
may  vary  the  form  of  expression.    Tims,  the  sense  of  the 
preceding  sentences,  may  be  conveyed  in  the  following 
terms.     "The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  of  the  . 
following  nature;"  "The  following  are  nearly  the  argu-  : 
ments  which  were  advanced;"  "The  arguments  advanced  ^ 
were  nearly  tliose  which  follow:"   "It  appears  that  the 
positions  were  incontrovertible;"    "That  the   positions  ^ 
were  incontrovertible  is  apparent;"  "The  positions  were 
apparently  incontrovertible, "    See  the  Octavo  Gramm^; 
the  note  under  Rule  I. 

RULE  II. 

Two  or  more  nouns,  &c.  in  the  singular  number, 
joined  together  by  a  copulative  conjunction,  express- 
ed or  understood,  must  have  verbs',  nouns,  and  pro- 
nouns, agreeing  with  them  in  the  plural  number:  as, 
'' Socrates  and  Plato  toere  wise;  they  were  the  most 
eminent  philosophers  of  Greece;"  ''The  sun  that 
rolls  over  our  heads,  the  food  that  we  receive,  the 
rest  that  we  enjoy,  daily  admonish  us  of  a  superior 
and  superintending  Power,  "t 

This  rule  is  often  violated;  seme  instances  of  which 
are  annexed.  "And  so  was  also  James  and  John  the  sons 
of  Zebedee,  who  were  partners  with   Simon;"  "and  so 

*  These  grammarians  are  supported  by  general  usage,  and  by  the  authority  of 
an  eminent-critic  on  language  and  composition.  "W^hen  a  verb  is  used  iniperson 
ally,"  says  Dr.  Campbell  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  "it  ought  undoubtedly  ta 
be  in  the  singular  number,  whether  the  neuter  pronoun  be  expressed  or  under 
stood.  For  this  reason,  analogy  and  usage  favour  this  mode  of  expression:  "Tha 
conditions  of  the  agreement  were  as  follows;"  and  not,  as  follow.  A  few  late 
writers  have  inconsiderately  adopted  this  last  form,  through  a  mistake  of  the 
construction.  For  the  same  reason,  we  ought  to  say,  "I  shall  consider  his  cen- 
sures so  far  only  as  concerns  my  friend's  conduct;"  and  not  'so  far  as  concent.* 

t  See  the  exceptions  to  this  rule,  at  p.  46  of  the  Key;  12th  edition. 


Rule  S.]  SYNTAX.  131 

f/?erc  also,"  "All  joy,  tranquillity,  and  peace,  even  for 
ever  and  ever,  doth  clwell;"  ''dwell forever."  "By  whose 
power  all  good  and  evil  is  distributed;"  "are  distributed." 
**Their  love,  and  their  hatred,  and  their  envy,  is  now  pe- 
rished;" "are  perished."  **The  thoughtless  and  intem- 
perate enjoyment  of  pleasure,  the  criminal  abuse  of  it, 
and  the  forgetfulness  of  our  being  accountable  creatures, 
obliterates  every  serious  thoudit  of  the  proper  business 
of  life,  and  eifaces  the  sense  of  religion  and  of  God;"  It 
ought  to  be,  ''obliterale,^^  and  ''effaceP 
■v  1.  When  the  nouns  are  nearly  related,  or  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable in  sense,  and  sometimes  even  when  they  are 
very  different,  some  authors  have  thought  it  allowable  to 
put  the  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns,  in  the  singular  nuin- 
ber:  as,  "Tranquillity  and  peace  dwells  there;"  "Igno- 
rancei,and  negligence  has  produced  the  effect;"  "The  dis- 
comfiture and  slaughter  was  very  great."  But  it  is  evi- 
dently contrary  to  the  first  principles  of  grammar,  to 
consider  two  distinct  ideas  as  one,  however  nice  may  be 

'  their  shades  of  difference:  and  if  there  be  no  difference, 

^  one  of  them  must  be  superfluous,  and  ought  to  be  rejected .  4-^ 
To  support  the  above  construction,  it  is  said,  that  the 
verb  may  be  understood  as  applied  to  each  of  the  pre- 
ceding terms;  as  in  the  following  example.  "Sand,  and 
salt,  and  a  mass  of  iron,  is  easier  to  bear  than  a  man 
without  understanding."  But  besides  the  confusion,  and 
the  latitude  of  application,  which  such  a  construction 
would  introduce,  it  appears  to  be  more  proper  and  ana- 
logical, in  cases  where  the  verb  is  intended  to  be  applied 
to  -any  one  of  the  terms,  to  make  use  of  the  disjunctive 
conjunction,  which  grammatically  refers  the  verb  to  one 

'  or  other  of  the  preceding  terms  in  a  separate  view.  To 
preserve  the  distinctive  uses  of  the  copulative  and  dis- 
junctive conjunctions,  would  render  the  rules  precise, 

;  consistent,  and  intelligible.  Dr.  Blair  very  justly  ob- 
serves, that  "two  or  more  substantives,  joined  by  a  copu- 
lative, must  always  require  the  verb  or  pronoun  to  whicK 
tliey  refer,  to  be  placed  in  the  plural  number." 

2.  In  many  complex  sentences,  it  is  difficult  for  learn- 
ers to  determine,  whether  one  or  more  of  the  clauses  are 
to  be  considered  as  the  rj/.-minative  case;  and  conse- 
quently, whether  the  verb  ^.hould  be  in  the  singular  or 


13^  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  i, 

the  plural  number.  We  shall,  therefore,  set  down  a 
nunfiber  of  varied  examples  of  this  nature,  which  may 
serve  as  some  government  to  the  scholar,  with  respect 
to  sentences  of  a  similar  construction.  "Prosperity,  with 
humility,  renders  its  possessor  truly  amiable.''  "The 
ship,  with  all  her  furniture,  was  destroyed."  "Not  only 
his  estate,  his  reputation  too  has  suffered  by  liis  miscon- 
duct." "The  general  also,  in  conjunction  with  the  offi- 
c'ers,  has  applied  for  redress."  "He  cannot  be  justified; 
for  it  is  true,  that  the  prince,  as  well  as  the  people,  was 
blameworthy."  **The  king,  witli  his  lifeguard,  has  just 
passed  through  the  village. "  "In  the  mutual  influencef 
of  body  and  soul,  there  is  a  wisdom,  a  wonderful  wis-^' 
dom,  which  we  cannot  fathom."  '^Virtue,  honour,  nay- 
ev«H  self-interest,  conspire  to  recommend  the  measure." 
^'Patriotism,  morality,  every  public  and  private  consider- 
ation, demand  our  submission  to  just  and  lawful  govern- 
ment." "Nothing  delights  me  so  much  as  the  works  of 
nature." 

In  support  of  such  forms  of  expression  as  the  following, 
we  see  the  authority  of  Hume,  Priestley,  and  other  wTit- 
ers;  and  we  annex  them  for  the  reader's  consideration. 
"A  long  course  of  time,  with  a  variety  of  accidents  and 
circumstances,  «re  requisite  to  produce  those  revolutions.** 
"Th€  king,  with  the  lords  and  commons, /on?!  an  excel- 
lent frame  of  government. "  "The  side  A,  with  the  sides 
B  and  C,  compose  the  triangle."  "The  fire  communicated 
itself  to- the  bed,  which,  with  the  furniture  of  the  room, 
and  a  valuable  library,  ivere  all  entirely  consumed."  it 
is,  however,  proper  to  observe,  that  these  modes  of  ex- 
pression do  not  appear  to  be  wan-anted  by  the  just  prin- 
ciples of  construction.  The  words,  "A  long  course  of 
time,"  '*The  king,"  '*The  side  A,"  and'  ''which,"  are 
the  true  nominatives  to  the  respective  verbs.  In  the  last 
example,  the  word  all  should  be  expunged.  As  the  pre- 
position with  governs  the  objective  case  In  English;  and, 
if  translated  into  Latin,  would  govern  the  ablative  case, 
it  is  manifest,  that  the  clauses  following  with,  in  the  pre- 
ceding sentences,  cannot  form  any  part  of  the  nominative 
case.  They  cannot  be  at  the  same  time  in  the  objective  , 
and  the  nominative  cases.  The  following  sentence  ap- 
pears to  be  unexceptionable;  and  may  serve  to  explaui 


Hale  3.3  SYNTA^t.  133 

tlie  others.  "The  lords  and  commons  are  essential 
branches  of  the  British  constitution.*  the  king,  with  them, 
forms  an  excellent  frame  of  government."* 
^3.  If  the  singular  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  are  joined 
together  by  a  copulative  conjunction,  be  of  several  per 
sons,  in  making  the  plural  pronoun  agree  with  them  in 
|>erson,  the  second  person  takes  place  of  the  third,  and 
the  first  of  both:  as,  "James,  and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached 
to  our  country."  "Thou  and  he  shared  it  between  youjX/ 

RULE  III. 

The  conjunction  disjunctive  has  an  effect  contrarjr 
to  that  of  the  conjunction  copulative;  for  as  the  verb,, 
noun,  or  pronoun,  is  referred  to  the  preceding  terms 
taken  separately,  it  must  be  in  the  singular  number: 
as,  **Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused  this  mis- 
take;" **John,  James,  or  Joseph,  intends  to  accom- 
i)any  me;"  **There  is,  in  many  minds,  neither 
Lnowledge  nor  understanding." 

The  following  sentences  are  variations  from  this  rule: 
**A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture, 
as  well  as  read  them  in  a  description;"  "read  tV."  "Nei» 
ther  character  nor  dialogue  were  yet  understood;"  '^was 
yet."  "It  must  indeed  be  confessed,  that  a  lampoon  or  a 
satire  do  not  carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder;"  '''does 
not  carry  in  iV."  "Death,  or  some  worse  misfortune,  soon 
divide  them."  It  ought  to  be  "divides.''^ 
V  1.  When  singular  pronouns,  or  a  noun  and  pronoun* 
of  different  persons,  are  disjunctively  connected,  the  verb 
must  agree  with  that  person  which  is  placed  nearest  to 
it:  as,  "I  or  thou  art  to  blame;"  "Thou  or  I  ffm  in  fault;*^ 
**I,  or  thou,  or  he,  is  the  author  of  it;"  "George  or  I  am. 
the  person."  But  it  would  be  better  to  say;  "Either  I  am 
to  blame,  or  thou  art,"  &c. 

*-2.  When  a  disjunctive  occurs  between  a  singular  noun^ 
or  pronoun,  and  a  plural  one,  the  verb  is  made  to  agree 
with  the  plural  noun  and  pronoun:  as,  "Neither  povertv; 
nor  riches  were  injurious  to  him;"  "I  or  they  ivere  of- 

*  Though  the  construction  will  not  admit  of  a  plural  verb,  the  seiitenc«  wa]|& 
certainly  etand  better  thus:  "The  king,  the  lords,  and  the  coiuinone, /i»r«  an  ex- 
cellent constitution." 

M 


134  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rulc  4* 

fended  by  it."  But  in  this  case,  the  plural  noun  .or  pro- 
noun, when  it  can  conveniently  be  done,  should  be  placed 
next  to  the  verb.  ^ 

RULE  IV. 

A  noun  of  multitude,  or  signifying  many,  may 
have  a  verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it,  either  of 
the  singular  or  plural  number;  yet  not  without  re- 
gard to  the  import  of  the  word,  as  conveying  unity 
or  plurality  oi  idea:  as.  The  meeting  was  large;" 
**The  parliament  is  dissolved;"  *'The  nation  is  pow- 
erful;" "My  people  (/o  not  consider:  //ley  have  not 
known  me;"  **The  multitude  eagerly  pursue  plea- 
sure, as  their  chief  good;"  *^The  council  were  divided 
in  their  sentiments." 

We  ought  to  consider  whether  the  term  will  imme- 
diately suggest  the  idea  of  the  number  it  represents,  or 
whether  it  exhibits  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  tlie  whole  as 
one  thin^.  In  the  former  case,  the  verb  ought  to  be  plu- 
ral; in  the  latter,  it  ought  to  be  singular.  Thus,  it  seems 
improper  to  say,  "The  peasantry  goes  barefoot,  and  the 
middle  sort  makes  use  of  wooden  shoes."  It  would  ba 
better  to  say,  "The  peasantry  go  barefoot,  and  the  middle 
sort  make  use,"  &c.  because  the  idea  in  both  these  cases, 
is  that  of  a  number.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  a  harsh- 
ness in  the  following  sentences,  in  which  nouns  of  num- 
ber have  verbs  plural;  because  the  ideas  they  represent 
seem  not  to  be  sufficiently  divided  in  the  mind.  ''The 
court  of  Rome  were  not  without  solicitude."  "The  house 
of  commons  were  of  small  weight. "  "The  house  of  lordff 
were  so  much  influenced  by  these  reasons."  ''Stephen's 
party  were  entirely  broken  up  by  the  captivity  of  their 
leader."  "An  army  of  twenty-four  thousand  were  assem- 
bled." "What  reason  have  the  church  of  Rome  for  pro- 
ceeding in  this  manner?"  "There  is  indeed  no  constitu- 
tion so  tame  and  careless  of  their  own  defence."  "All 
the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few 
fingers,  but  his  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable."  Is 
not  mankind  in  this  place  a  noun  of  multitude,  and  such 
as  requires  the  pronoun  referring  to  it  to  be  in  the  plural 
number,  their? 


Kule  5.]  SYNTAX.  135 

RULE  V. 

Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antecedents, 
and  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand,  in  gender  and 
number:  as,  *<This  is  the  friend  ivho7n  I  love;'^  <^That 
is  the  vice  ivhich  I  hate;"  *'The  king  and  the  queen 
had  put  on  ^/ieiV robes;"  *'The  moon  appears,  and  she 
shines,  but  the  light  is  not  her  own." 

The  relative  is  of  the  same  person  as  the  anteced- 
ent, and  the  verb  agrees  with  it  accordingly:  as,  "Thou 
loho  lovest  wisdom;"  '^I  who  speak  from  experience." 

Of  this  rule  there  are  many  violations  to  be  met  with;  a 
few  of  which  may  be  sufficient  to  put  the  learner  on  his 
guard.  ^''Each  of  the  sexes  should  keep  within  its  parti- 
cular bounds,  and  content  themselves  with  the  advantages 
of  their  particular  districts:"  better  thus:  "The  sexes 
should  keep  within  their  particular  bounds,"  &c.  '*Can 
any  one,  on  their  entrance  into  the  w  orld,  be  fully  secure 
that  they  shall  not  be  deceived?"  *'on  M's  entrance,"  and 
*'that  he  shall."  "One  slipuld  not  think  too  favourably  of 
ourselves;"  "of  one's  se^."  "He  had  one  acquaintance 
which  poisoned  his  principles;"  '^who  poisoned." 
*-  Every  relative  must  have  an  antecedent  to  which  it 
refers,  either  expressed  or  implied:  as,  "Who  is  fatal  to 
others  is  so  to  hnnself;"  that  is,  "//le  manivho  is  fatal  to 
others.'^ 

*-  TVho^  which,  what,  and  tlie  relative  that,  though  in  the 
objective  case,  are  always  placed  before  the  verb;  as  are 
also  their  compounds,  lohoever,  whosoever,  Sic;  as,  "He 
whom  ye  seek;"'*.f*This  is  what,  or  the  thing  which,  oi 
that  you  want;"  "Wliomsoever  you  please  to  appoint." 
TV  hat  is  sometimes  applied,  in  a  manner  which  appears 
to  be  exceptionable:  as,  "All  fevers,  except  what  are 
called  nervous,"  &c.  It  would  at  least  be  better  to  say, 
"exQept  those  which  Sire  called  nervous." 
—4-.  Personal  pronouns  being  used  to  supply  the  place  of 
the  noun,  are  not  employed  in  the  same  part  of  a  sentence 
as  the  noun  which  they  represent;  for  it  would  be  im- 
proper to  say,  "The  king  he  is  just;"  "I  saw  her  the 
niieen;'Z:"T]ie  men  they  were  there;"  "Many  woids  they 


136  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [TRulc  0» 

darken  speech;"  *'Mj  banks  they  are  furnished  with 
bees."  These  personals  are  superfluous,  as  there  is  not 
the  least  occasion  for  a  substitute  in  the  same  part  where 
the  principal  word  is  present.  The  nominative  case  they^ 
in  the  following  sentence,  is  also  superfluous;  "Who,  in- 
stead of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are  perpetually  in- 
tent upon  doing  mischief." 

-^2.  The  pronoun  that  is  frequently  applied  to  persons  as 
well  as  to  things;  but  after  an  adjective  in  the  superlative 
degree,  and  after  the  pronominai  adjective  same^  it  i^ 
generally  used  in  preference  to  who  or  which:  as,  "Charles 
XII.  king  of  Sweden,  was  one  of  the  greatest  madmen 
that  the  world  ever  saw;"  "Cataline's  followers  were  the 
most  profligate  that  could  be  found  in  any  city."  "He  is 
the  same  man  that  we  saw  before.">^  There  are  cases 
wherein  we  cannot  conveniently  dispense  with  this  rela- 
tive as  applied  to  persons;  as  first,  after  who  the  inter- 
i-ogative;  "Who  that  has  any  sense  of  religion,  would 
have  argued  thus?"  Secondly,  when  persons  make  but  a 
part  of  the  antecedent;  '*The  woman,  and  the  estate,  that 
became  his  portion  were  too  much  for  his  moderation. 'i.. 
In  neither  of  these  examples  could  any  ether  relative 
have  been  used. 

^  3.  The  pronouns  whichsoever^  whosoever^  and  the  like, 
are  elegantly  divided  by  the  interposition  of  the  corres- 
ponding substantives:  thus,  '*0n  whichsoever  side  the 
king  cast  his  eyes;"  would  have  sounded  better,  if  writ- 
ten, "On  which  side  soever,"  &c.< 
"-4.  Many  persons  are  apt,  in  conversation,  to  put  the  ob- 
jective case  of  the  personal  pronouns,  in  the  place  oi  these 
and  those:  as,  "Give  me  them  books;"  instead  of  "/Aose 
books."  We  may  sometimes  find  this  fault  even  in  writ- 
ing: as,  "Observe  them  three  there."  We  also  frequently 
meet  with  those  instead  of  they^  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence,  and  where  there  is  no  particular  reference  to 
an  antecedentj^as,  ''•Those  that  sow  in  tears,  sometimes 
reap  in  joy."    They  that,  or  they  who  sow  in  tears. 

It  is  not,  however,  always  easy  to  say,  whether  a  per- 
s(mal  pronoun  or  a  demonstrative  is  preferable,  in  certain 
constructions.  "We  are  not  unacquainted  with  the  ca- 
lumny of  Mem  j^or  those]  who  openly  make  use  of  thQ 
vrarmest  professions." 


Bule  5.]  SYNTAX.  1S7 

"-5.  In  some  dialects,  the  word  what  is  improperly  used 
for  that,  and  sometimes  we  find  it  in  this  sense  m  writing: 
''They  will  never  believe  but  tvhat  I  have  been  entirely 
to  blame."'  "I  am  not  satisfied  but  what,"  &c.  instead  of 
•*but  /to.'«^  The  word  sometchat,  in  the  following  sen- 
tence, seems  to  be  used  improperly.  "These  punish- 
ments seem  to  have  been  exercised  in  somewhat  an 
arbitrary  manner."  Sometimes  we  read,  ''In  somewhat 
of."  The  meaning  is,  "in  a  manner  which  is  in  some  re- 
spects arbitrary." 

6.  The  pronoun  relative  who  is  so  much  appropiated 
to  persons,  that  there  is  generally  harshness  in  the  appli- 
cation of  it,  except  to  the  proper  names  of  persons,  or  the 
general  terms  7nan,  tvonian,  &c.  A  term  which  only 
implies  the  idea  of  persons,  and  expresses  them  by  some 
circumstance  or  epithet,  will  hardly  authorize  the  use  of 
it:  as,  "That  faction  in  England  loho  most  powerfully 
opposed  his  arbitrary  pretensions."  "That  faction  which,'^ 
would  have  been  better;  and  the  same  remark  will  serve 
for  the  following  examples:  "France,  who  was  in  alliance 
with  Sweden."  "The  court,  who,^^  &c.  "The  cavalry 
f{)ho,^^  &c.  "The  cities  who  aspired  at  liberty."  ''That 
party  among  us  toho,^^  &c.  "The  family  whoiJi  they  con- 
sider as  usurpers." 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  doubtful,  whether  this  pronoun 
is  properly  applied  or  not:  as,  "The  number  of  substan- 
tial inhabitants  with  whom  some  cities  abound."  Foi' 
when  a  term  directly  and  necessarily  implies  persons,  it 
may  in  many  cases  claim  the  personal  relative.  "None 
of  the  company  whom  he  most  aft'ected,  could  cure  him 
of  the  melancholy  under  which  he  laboured."  The  word 
acquaintance  may  have  the  same  construction. 

7.  We  hardly  consider  little  children  as  persons,  be- 
cause that  term  gives  us  the  idea  of  reason  and  reflection: 
and  therefore  the  application  of  the  personal  relative  who, 
in  this  case,  seems  to  be  harsh:  "A  child  who.^^  It  is 
still  more  improperly  applied  to  animals:  "A  lake  fre- 
quented by  that  fowl  who7n  nature  has  taught  to  dip  the 
wing  in  water." 

w  8.  When  the  name  of  a  person  is  used  merely  as  a 
name,  and  it  does  not  refer  to  the  person,  the  pronoun 
ivho  ought  not  to  be  applied.    "It  is  no  wonder  if  such  a 
M  2 


t3€  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [Rule  'S~- 

man  did  not  shine  at  the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  wha 
was  but  another  name  for  prudence  and  economy."  Better 
thus;  "whose  name  was  but  another  word  for  prudence," 
^tc^JThe  word  whose  begins  likewise  to  be  restricted  to 
persons;  jet  it  is  not  done  so  generally,  but  that  eood 
writers,  even  in  prose,  use  it  \vhen  speaking  of  things. 
The  construction  is  not,  however,  generally  pleasing, 
as  we  may  see  in  the  following  instances:  "Pleasure, 
vvhose  nature,"  &c.  ''Call  every  production,  whose  parts 
and  ivhose  nature,"  &c. 

«-  la  one  case,  however,  custom  authorizes  us  to  use 
tuhich,  with  respect  to  persons;  and  that  is  when  we  want 
to  distinguish  one  person  of  two,  or  a  particular  person 
among  a  number  of  others.  We  should  then  say,  ''PVhich 
of  the  two,"  or  ''•Which  of  them,  is  he  or  sher"^^ 
-^.  As  the  pronoun  relative  has  no  distinction  of  num- 
ber, we  sometimes  find  an  ambiguity  in  the  use  of  it:  as, 
when  we  say,  "The  disciples  of  Cnrist,  whom  we  imitate;'?^ 
we  may  mean  the  imitation  either  of  Christ,  or  of  his 
disciples.^Tlie  accuracy  and  clearness  of  the  sentence, 
depend  very  much  upon  the  proper  and  determinate  u§e 
of  the  relative,  so  that  it  may  readily  present  its  ante- 
<;edent  to  the  mind  of  the  hearer  or  reader,  without  any 
obscurity  or  ambiguity. 

*^"  10.  It  is  and  it  was,  are  often,  after  the  manner  of  the 
French,  used  in  a  plural  construction,  and  by  some  of  our 
best  writers:  as,  ''It  is  either  a  few  great  men  who  decide 
far  the  whole,  or  it  is  the  rabble  that  follow  a  seditious 
ringleader:"  "It  is  they  that  are  the  real  authors,  thougli 
t'le  soldiers  are  the  actors  of  the  revolution;"  "//  was 
the  heretics  that  first  began  to  rail,"  &c.;'^"'7is  these 
that  early  taint  the  female  mind."  This  license  in  the 
coastt  uction  of  it  is,  (if  it  be  proper  to  admit  it  at  all,) 
has,  however,  been  certainly  abused  in  the  following  sen- 
tence, which  is  thereby  made  a  very  awkward  one.  "It 
is  Wonderful  the  very  few  accidents,  which,  in  several 
years,  happen  from  this  practice." 
*-  11.  The  interjections  0!  Oh!  and  ^9h!  require  the  ob- 
jective case  of  a  pronoun  in  the  first  person  after  them: 
as,  "0  me!  Oli  me!  Ah  me!"  But  the  nominative  case 
in  the  second  person:  as,  "O  thou  persecutor!"  **0h  ye 
hypocrites!"  *'0  thou,  who  dwellest,"  &c.  , 


Rule  6.]  SYNTAX.  139 

The  neuter  pronoun,  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the  Eng- 
lish language,  is  frequently  joined  in  explanatory  senten- 
ces, with  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  masculine  or  feminine 
gender:  as,  *'It  was  I;"  "It  was  the  man  or  woman  that 
didit.^' 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  omitted  and  un- 
derstood; thus  we  say,  "As  appears,  as  follows;"  for  "As 
it  appears,  as  it  follows;"  and  "May  be,"  for  "It  may 
be." 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  employed  to  ex- 
press; 

1st,  The  subject  of  any  discourse  or  inquiry:  as,  *'// 
happened  on  a  summer's  day;"  '*Who  is  it  that  calls  on 
me?" 

2d,  The  state  or  condition  of  any  person  or  thing:  as, 
"How  is  it  with  you?" 

Sd,  The  thing,  whatever  it  be,  that  is  tlie  cause  of  any 
effect  or  event,  or  any  person  considered  merely  as  sk 
cause:  as,  '*We  heard  her  say  it  was  not  he;"  "The 
i.  truth  is,  it  was.  I  that  helped  her," 

RULE  VI. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb, 
when  no  nominative  comes  between  it  and  the  verb: 
as,  **The  master  who  taught  us;"  **The  trees  which 
are  planted." 

When  a  nominative  comes   between  the  relative 

.   and  the  verb,  the  relative  is  governed  by  some  word 

in  its  own  member  of  the  sentence:   as,  "He  who 

preserves  me,  to  whom  I  owe  my  being,  whose  I  am, 

'  and  whom  I  serve,  is  eternal." 

In  the  several  members  of  the  last  sentence,  the  rela- 
tive performs  a  different  office.  In  the  first  member,  it 
marks  the  agent;  in  the  second,  it  submits  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  preposition;  in  the  third,  it  represents  the 
possessor;  and  m  the  fourth,  the  object  of  an  action: 
and  therefore  it  must  be  in  the  three  different  cases,  cor- 
respondent to  those  offices. 

When  both  the  antecedent  and  relative  become  nomi- 
natives, each  to  different  verbs,  the  relative  is  the  nomina- 


XAO  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rulc  6. 

tive  to  the  former,  and  the  antecedent  to  tlie  latter  verb: 
as, "  True  Philosophy,  which  is  the  ornament  of  our  nature, 
consists  more  in  the  love  of  our  duty,  and  the  practice 
of  virtue,  than  in  great  talents  and  extensive  knowledge/' 
A  few  instances  of  erroneous  construction,  will  illus- 
trate both  the  branches  of  the  sixth  rule.  The  three 
following  refer  to  the  first  part.  *'How  can  we  avoid 
being  grateful  to  those  whom,  by  repeated  kind  offices, 
have  proved  themselves  our  real  friends!"  "These  are  the 
men  whom,  you  might  suppose,  were  the  authors  of  the 
work:"  "If  you  were  here,  you  would  find  three  or  four, 
w  hom  you  would  say  passed  their  time  agreeably:"  in  all 
these  places  it  should  be  who  instead  of  lohom.  The  two 
ktter  sentences  contain  a  nominative  between  the  rela- 
tive and  the  verb;  and,  therefore,  seem  to  contravene  the 
rule:  but  the  student  will  reflect,  that  it  is  not  the  nomi- 
native of  the  verb  with  which  the  relative  is  connected. 
The  remaining  examples  refer  to  the  second  part  of  the 
rule.  "Men  of  fine  talents  are  not  always  the  persons 
who  we  should  esteem."  "The  persons  who  you  dispute 
^\  ith,  are  precisely  of  your  opinion."  "Our  tutors  are  our 
benefiictors,  who  we  owe  obedience  to,  and  who  we  ought 
to  love."  In  these  sentences,  whom  should  be  used  in- 
stead of  tvho. 

'^.  When  the  relative  pronoun  is  of  the  interrogative 
kind,  the  noun  or  pronoun  containing  the  answer,  must 
be  in  the  same  case  as  that  which  contains  the  question: 
as,  '^Tfliose  books  are  these?  They  are  John's.''^  ''Who 
gave  them  to  him?  IFe."  "Of  whom  did  you  buy  them? 
Of  a  bookseller;  hirn  who  lives  at  the  Bible  and  Crown.'^ 
''Whom  did  you  see  there?  Both  Aim  and  the  shopman." 
The  learner  will  readily  comprehend  this  rule,  by  sup- 
plying the  words  which  are  understood  in  the  answers, 
rfius,  to  express  the  answers  at  large,  we  should  say, 
''They  are  John's  books."  "We  gave  them  to  him." 
"We  bought  them  of  liim  who  lives,"  &c.  "We  saw 
both  him  and  the  shopman." — As  the  relative  pronoun, 
when  used  interrogatively,  refers  to  the  subsequent  word 
or  phrase  containing  the  answer  to  the  question,  that 
word  or  phrase  may  properly  be  .termed  the  subsequent, 
t<»  the  interrogative. 


Rules  7, 8.]  SYNTAX.  141 

RULE  VII. 

When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nominatives 
of  different  persons,  the  relative  and  verb  may  agree 
in  person  with  either,  according  to  the  sense:  as,  *'I 
am  the  man  who  command  you;''  or,  *'I  am  the  man 
ivho  commands  you. " 

The  form  of  the  first  of  the  two  preceding  sentences, 
expresses  the  meaning  rather  obscurely.  It  would  be 
more  perspicuous  to  sav;  "I,  who  command  you,  am  the 
man."  Perhaps  the  difference  of  meaning,  produced  by 
referring  the  relative  to  different  antecedents,  will  be 
more  evident  to  the  learner,  in  the  fullowinff  sentences. 
"I  am  the  general  who  gives  the  orders  to-day;"  "I  aiu 
the  general,  who  give  the  orders  to-day;"  that  is,  "I,  who 
give  the  orders  to-day,  am  the  general." 

When  the  relative  and  the  verb  have  been  determined 
to  agree  with  either  of  the  preceding  nominatives,  that 
agreement  must  be  preserved  throughout  the  sentence; 
as  in  the  following  instance;  "I  am  the  Lord  that  maketh 
all  things;  that  stretcheth  forth  the  heavens  alone."  /*«♦ 
xliv.  24.  Thus  far  is  consistent:  The  Lord,  in  the  third 
person,  is  the  antecedent,  and  the  verb  agrees  with  the 
relative  in  the  third  person:  "I  am  the  Lord,  which  Lord, 
or  he  that  maketh  all  things."  If  /  were  made  the  ante- 
cedent, the  relative  and  verb  should  agree  with  it  in  the 
first  person:  as,  "/am  the  Lord,  that  make  all  things, 
that  stretch  forth  the  heavens  alone."  But  should  it 
follow;  "That  spreadeth  abroad  the  earth  by  myself;" 
there  would  arise  a  confusion  of  persons,  and  a  manifest 
solecism. 

RULE  VIII. 

Every  adjective,  and  every  adjective  pronoun,  be- 
longs  to  a  substantive,  expressed  or  understood:  as, 
**He  is  a  good,  as  well  as  a  wise  manf^  ^^Few  are  hap- 
py;^^  that  is,  ^^persons:^'  ^^This  is  a  pleasant  walk;" 
that  is,  ^^This  walk  is,'^  &c. 

Adjective  pronouns  must  agree,  in  number,  with 
their  substantives:  as,  "This  book,  these  books;  that 
sort,  those  sorts;  another  road,  other  roads.'* 


142  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [Rulc  8. 


I.    ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

A  few  instances  of  the  breach  of  this  rule  are  here 
exhibited.  "I  have  not  travelled  this  twenty  years;'' 
^Hhese  twenty."  "I  am  not  recommending  these  kind  ot" 
sufferings;"  ^^Hhis  kind."  "Those  set  ot  books  was  a 
valuable  present;"  'Hhat  set." 

1.  The  word  means  in  the  singular  number,  and  the 
phrases,  "i>V  this  means^^^  '*By  tluit  jneans,^^  are  used  by 
our  best  and  most  correct  writers;  namely,  Bacon,  Til- 
lotson,  Atterbury,  Addison,  Steele,  Pope,  &.c.*JThey  ar^,  * 
indeed,  in  so  general  and  approved  use,  that  it  would 
appear  awkward,  if  not  affectecf,  to  apply  the  old  singular 
form,  and  say,  "By  this  mean;  by  that  mean;  it  was  by^ 
a  jnean;^^  although  it  is  more  agreeable  to  the  general  ' 
analogy  of  the  language.   "The  word  means  (says  Priest- 
ley) belongs  to  the  class  of  words,  wliich  do  not  changes 
tlieir  termination  on  account  of  number;  for  it  is  used 
alike  in  both  numbers.". 

The  word  amends  is  used  in  this  manner,  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences:  "Though  he  did  not  succeed,  he 
gained  the  approbation  of  his  country;  and  with  this 
amends  he  was  content."  "Peace  of  mind  is  an  honour- 
able amends  for  the  sacrifices  of  interest."  "In  return, 
lie  received  the  thanks  of  his  employers,  and  the  present 
of  a  large  estate:  these  were  ample  amends  for  all  hi> 
labours."  "We  have  described  the  rewards  of  vice:  the 
good  man's  amends  are  of  a  different  nature." 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that  this  word  amends  (like 
the  word  means)  had  formerly  its  correspondent  form  in 

*  "/?«/  this  means,  he  had  them  the  more  at  vantage,  being  tired  and  harassed 
with  a  long  march."  Bacon. 

"By  this  means  one  ereat  restraint  from  doing  evil,  would  be  taken  away."— 
"And  this  is  an  admirable  means  to  improve  men  in  virtue." — By  that  means 
lliey  have  rendered  tJieir  duty  more  difficult."  Tillotson. 

"Ii  renders  us  careless  of  approving  ourselves  to  God,  and  by  that  means  se 
Hiring  the  continuance  of  his  goodness." — "A  good  character,  when  established, 
sJiouId  not  be  rested  in  as  an  end,  but  employed  as  a  means  of  doing  still  further 
gwid."  Atterbury. 

''By  this  means  they  are  happy  in  each  other."— "He  by  that  means  preserve- 
Jiis  superiority."  Addison. 

"Your  vanity  by  this  means  will  want  its  food."  Steele. 

*'Bii  this  means  alone,  their  greatest  obstacles  will  vanish."  Pope. 

"VVhich  custom  has  proved  the  most  effectual  means  to  ruin  the  nobles." 

Dean  Stcift 


Uule  8*]  SYNTAX.  14Q 

tlie  singular  number,  as  it  is  derived  from  the  French 
amende,  though  now  it  is  exclusively  established  in  the 
plural  form.  If,  therefore,  it  be  alleged  that  mean 
should  be  applied  in  the  singular,  because  it  is  derived 
from  the  French  rnoyen,  the  same  kind  of  argument  may 
be  advanced  in  favour  of  the  singular  amende;  and  the 
general  analogy  of  the  language  may  also  be  pleaded  in 
support  of  it. 

Campbell,  in  his  "Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,"  has  the 
following  remark  on  the  subject  before  us:  "No  persons 
of  taste  will,  I  presume,  venture  so  far  to  violate  the 
present  usage,  and  consequently  to  shock  the  ears  of  the 
generality  of  readers,  as  to  say,  "By  this  inean,  by  that 
mean,^^ 

Lowth  and  Johnson  seem  to  be  against  the  use  of  means 
in  the  singular  number.  They  do  not,  however,  speak 
decisively  on  the  point;  but  rather  dubiously,  and  as  if 
they  knew  that  they  were  questioning  eminent  authorities, 
as  well  as  general  practice.  That  they  were  not  deci- 
dedly against  the  application  of  this  word  to  the  singular 
number,  appears  from  their  own  language:  "Whole  sen- 
tences, whether  simple  or  compound,  may  become  mem- 
bers of  other  sentences  by  means  of  some  additional 
connexion,''^ — Dr.  Lowth's  Introduction  to  English 
Grammar, 

"There  is  no  other  method  of  teaching  that  'of  which 
any  one  is  ignorant  but  by  means  of  something  already 
known." — Dr.  Johnson.     Idler, 

It  is  remarkable  that  our  present  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures make  no  use,  as  far  as  the  compiler  can  discover, 
of  the  word  mean;  though  there  are  several  instances  te 

"There  is  no  means  of  escaping  the  persecution."— "Faith  is  not  only  a  means 
•f  obeying,  but  a  principal  act  of  obedience."  Dr.   Young. 

"He  looked  on  money  as  a  necessary  7neon«  of  maintaining  and  increasiHg 
power."  Lord  Lyttclton's  Henry  II. 

"John  was  too  much  intimidated  not  to  embrace  every  means  afforded  for  iijs 
•afety."  Goldsmith. 

"Lest  this  means  should  fail."— "By  means  of  ship-money,  the  late  king,"  ice. 
— ''The  only  means  of  securing  a  durable  peace."  Hume. 

'*By  this  means  there  was  nothing  left  to  the  parliament  of  Ireland,"  &e. 

Blackstone. 

"  By  this  means  so  many  slaves  escaped  out  of  the  hands  of  their  masters." 

Dr.  Robertson. 

"By  this  means  they  bear  witness  to  each  other."  Burke. 

"By  this  means  the  wrath  of  man  was  mad(|fto  turn  against  itself,"  Dr.  Blair. 

"A  magazine,  which  has,  by  this  means,  contained,"  &c. —  "Birds,  in  gcneral,- 
-procure  iteir  food  by  mcaus  of  Uieir  beak.  Dr.  Poi^^ 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [RuIc  8v 

be  found  in  it  of  the  use  of  means,  in  the  sense  and  con- 
nexion contended  for.  "By  this  means  thou  shalt  have 
no  portion  on  this  side  the  river."  Ezra  iv.  16.  "That  by 
means  of  death,''^  &c.  Heb.  ix.  15.  It  will  scarcely  be 
pretended,  that  th«  translators  of  the  sacred  volumes 
did  not  accurately  understand  the  English  language;  or 
that  they  would  have  a^lmitted  one  form  of  this  word, 
and  rejected  the  other,  had  not  their  determination  beea  J 
conformable  to  the  best  usage,  An  attempt  therefore  to 
recover  an  old  word,  so  long  since  disused  by  the  most 
correct  writers,  seems  not  litely  to  be  successful;  espe- 
cially as  the  rejection  of  it  is  not  attended  with  an^- 
inconvenience. 

The  practice  of  the  best  and  most  con-ect  writers,  or 
a  great  majority  of  them,  corroborated  by  generaljj||fege, 
forms,  during  its  continuance,  the  standard  of  iM^age;* 
cspeciallv,  if,  in  particular  instances,  this  practice  con- 
tinue, after  objection  and  due  consideration.  Every 
connexion  and  application  of  words  and  phrases,  thus 
supported,  must  therefore  be  proper,  and  entitled  ta 
respect,  if  not  exceptionable  in  a  moral  point  of  view. 


'Si  volet  usus 


"Quern  penes  arbitrium  est,  et  jus,  et  norma  loquendi."  HOR. 

On  this  principle,  many  forms  of  expression,  not  less 
deviating  from  the  general  analogy  of  the  language,  than 
those  before  mentioned,  are  to  be  considered  as  strictly 
proper  and  justifiable.  Of  this  kind  are  the  following. 
"Aanc  of  them  are  varied  to  express  the  gender;"  and 
yet  none  originally  signified  no  one.  "He  himself  shall 
do  the  work:"  here,  what  was  at  first  appropriated  to 
the  objective,  is  now  properly  used  as  the  nominative 
case.  ''You  have  behaved  yourselves  well:"  in  this 
example,  the  word  you  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  plu*. 
r^,  with  strict  propriety;  though  formerlj  it  was  con- 
fined to  the  objective  case,  and^c  exclusively  used  for 
the  nominative. 

With  respect  to  anomalies  and  variations  of  language^ 
thus  established,  it  is  the  grammarian^'s  business  to  sm)- 
mit,  not  to  remonstrate.  In  pertinaciously  opposing  the 
decision  of  proper  authority,  and  contending  for  obsolete 
modes  of  expression,  he  may,  indeed,  display  learning  and 
critical  sagacity;  and,  in  some  degree,  obscure  points 


Kuk  8.)  SYNTAX.  145 

rliat  are  sufficiently  clear  and  decided ;  but  he  cannot 
reasonably  liope  either  to  succeed  in  his  aims  or  to  assist 
the  learner,  in  discovering  and  respecting  the  true  stand- 
ard and  principles  of  language. 

Cases  which  custom  lias  left  dubious,  are  certainly 
Avithin  the  grammarian's  province.  Here,  he  may  reason 
and  remonstrate  on  the  ground  of  derivation,  analogy, 
and  propriety;  and  liis  reasonings  may  refine  and  improve 
the  language:  but  wlien authority  speaks  out  and  decidon 
the  point,  it  were  perpetually  to  unsettle  the  language, 
to  admit  of  cavil  and  debate.  Anomalies  then,  under  tno 
limitation  mentioned,  become  the  law,  as  clearly  as  the 
plainest  analogies. 

The  reader  Mill  perceive  that,  in  tli«  following  sen- 
tences, the  use  of  the  word  mean  in  the  old  form  has  a 
very  uncouth  appearance:  "By  the  mm?2  of  adversity  we 
are  often  instructed."  "Ke  preserved  his  health  by  mean 
of  exercise."  "  Fi*ugality  is  one  mean  of  acquiring  a 
competency."  They  should  be,  "By  weans  of  adversi- 
ty," &c.  "By  means  of  exercise,"  &c.  "Frugality  is  one 
means  ;^'^  &c. 

Good  writers  do  indeed  make  use  of  the  substantiAC 
mean  in  the  singular  number,  and  in  that  number  only,  to 
signify  mediocnty,  middle  rate,  &c,  as,  "This  is  a  mean 
between  the  two  extremes."  But  in  the  sense  of  instru- 
mentality, it  has  been  long  disused  by  the  best  authors, 
and  by  almost  every  writer. 

'"^his  means  and  that  means  should  be  used  only  when 
ihey  refer  to  what  is  singular ;  these  means  and  those  means, 
when  they  respect  plurals :  as,  "He  lived  temperately, 
and  by  this  means  presen^d  his  health  ;"  "The  scholars 
were  attentive,  industriotis,  and  obedient  to  their  tutors ; 
and  by  these  means  acquired  knowledge.''^/ 

We  have  enlarged  on  this  article,  that  the  young  stu  - 
dent  may  be  led  to  reliect  on  a  point  so  important,  as  that 
of  ascertaining  the  standard  of  propriety  in  the  use  of 
language. 

2.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of  in  a  sen- 
tence, and  there  is  occasion  to  mention  tnem  again  for  the 
sake  of  distinction,  thai  is  used  in  reference  to  the  former, 
and  thiSf  in  reference  to  the  latter:  as,  "Self-love, 
wliich  is  the  spring  of  actian  in  the  soul,  is  Hiled  by  rea- 


146  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  8. 

son :  but  for  that,  man  would  be  inactive ;  and  but  for  this^ 
he  would  be  active  to  no  end."    y^ 

3.  The  distributive  adjective  pronouns,  each,  every, 
either,  agree  with  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  of  the 
singular  number  only:  as,  "The  king  of  Israel,  and  Je- 
hoshaphat,  the  king  of  Judah,  sat  each  on  his  throne  ;■' 
"Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit  :H^  unless  the  plural 
noun  convey  a  collective  idea:  as,  *^Every  six  months  ;"* 

^^ Every  hundred  years." r-The  following  phrases  are 

exceptionable.  "Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  them- 
selves:"   It   oiiorht  to   be   '^himself.'^     "The  lanjmao-e 
111111  •  1  •  *.® 

should  be  both  perspicuous  and  correct:  m  proportion 

as  ejYAer  of  thes^two  qualities  are  wanting,  the  language 
is  imperfect :"  it  should  be,  "is  wanting."  '*Every  on 
of  the  letters  bear  regular  dates,  and  contain  proofs  < ! 
attachment :"  '^bears  a  regular  date,  and  contains.-^  ''•Eve 
ry  town  and  village  were  burned ;  every  grove  and  every 
tree  were  cut  down :"  ''*was  burned,  and  was  cut  down." 
See  the  Key,  p.  16  ;  and  the  Octavo  Grammar,  Second 
edition,  volume  2,  page  322. 

Either  is  often  used  improperly,  iiistead  of  each :  as. 
"The  king  of  Israel,  and  Jehoshaphat  the  king  of  Judah. 
sat  either  of  them  on  his  throne ;"  "Nadab  and  Abihu, 
the  sons  of  Aaron,  took  either  of  them  his  censer."  Each 
signifies  both  of  them  taJvcn  distinctly  or  separately;  eithci 
properly  signifies  only  the  one  or  the  other  of  them  take? 
disjunctively. 

In  the  course  of  this  work,  some  examples  will  appear 
of  erroneous  translatums  from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  witli 
respect  to  grammatical  construction :  but  it  may  be  proper 
to  remark,  that  notv/ithstanding  these  verbal  mistakes. 
the  Bible,  for  the  size  of  it,  is  the  most  accurate  gram  ~ 
matical  composition  tliat  we  have  in  the  English  language. 
The  authority  of  several  eminent  grammarians  might  b 
adduced  in  support  of  this  assertion ;  but  it  may  be  sufii 
cient  to  mention  only  that  of  Dr.  Lowth,  who  says,  "Th- 
present  translation  of  the  Bible,  is  the  best  standard  o! 
the  English  language." 


II.    ADJECTIVES. 


4.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  improperly  applied  as  ad~ 
ve/as:  as,  "indifferent  honest;  excellent  well ;  miserable 


ule  S.)  SYNTAX.  14T 

poor;"  instead  of  "Indifferently  honest  J  excellent!  v  well ; 
miserably  poor."  "He  behaved  himself  conformable  to 
that  great  example;"  "co??/b/'7?i«t)/?/."/ "Endeavour  to 
live  hereafter  suitable  to  a  person  in  thy  station ;"  ^'siiit- 
ably.^^  "I  can  never  think  so  very  mean  of  him  ;'- 
''''meanly.''''  "He  describes  this  river  agreeable  to  the 
common  reading:"  "agreeably."'^  "A^reealile  to  my  pro- 
mise, I  now  write :"  '''agreeably P  "'Iny  exceeding  great 
reward :"  When  united  to  an  adjective,  or  adverb  not 
ending  in  /y,  t\\Q  word  exceeding  has  ly  added  to  it:  as, 
"exceedingly  dreadful,  exceedingly  gieat;"  "' exceedingly 
well,  exceedingly  more  active :"  but  when  it  is  joined 
to  an  adverb  or  adjective,  having  that  termination,  the  ly 
is  omitted :  as,  "Some  men  think  exceeding  clearly,  and 
reason  exceeding  forcibly:"  "She  appeared,  on  this  oc- 
casion, exceeding  lovely."  "He  acted  in  this  business 
bolder  than  was  expected :"  "They  behaved  the  noblest^ 
because  they  were  disinterested."  They  should  have  been, 
'hnore  boldvy  ;  most  nobly. ''^ — The  adjective  pronoun  such 
is  often  misapplied :  as,  "He  was  such  an  extravagant 
young  man,  that  he  spent  his  whole  patrimony  in  a  few 
years:"  it  should  be,  '''so  extravagant  a  young  man.^^ 
'''I  never  before  saw  such  large  trees:"  '^'saiv  trees  so 
large.^^  When  we  refer  to  the  species  or  nature  of  a 
thing,  the  word  such  is  properly  applied :  as,  "Sucli  a 
temper  is  seldom  found :"  but  when  degree  is  signified, 
we  use  the  word  so:  as,  "So  bad  a  temper  is  seldom 
found." 

^■^dverbs  are  likewise  improperly  used  as  adjectives:  as, 
"The  tutor  addressed  him  m  terms  rather  warm,  but  suit- 
ably to  his  offence  ;"  "5mV«6/e."  "Th.ey  were  seen  M^an- 
derinw  about  solitarily  and  distressed  ;"  "5o/^7ary.'V^*He 
lived  m  a  manner  agreeably  to  tlie  dictates  of  reason  and 
religion;"  "agreeable.^''  "Tlie  study  of  syntax  should  be 
previously  to  that  of  punctuation ;"  "previous :''* 

5.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  be 
avoided :  such  as,  "A  worser  conduct ;"  "On  lesser  hopes;" 
'^A  more  serener  temper :"  "The  most  straitest  sect ;"  "A 

*  For  the  rule  to  determine  whether  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  is 
to  be  used,  see  English  Exercises,  Sixteenth,  or  any  subsequent, 
edition,  page  140. 


14^  ElfGLISHT  GRAMMAR.  (Rttlc  S 

more  superior  work."  They  should  be,  "worse  conduct  ;'* 
''•less  hopes;"  "a  more  serene  temper;"  "the  straitesi 
sect;"  "a  superior  work."   ],» 

6.  Adjectives  that  have  in  themselves  a  superlative  sig- 
nification, do  not  properly  admit  of  the  superlative  or  com 
parative  form  superadded :  such  as,  "Chief,  extreme,  per- 
fect, right,  universal,  supreme,"  &c.;  which  are  sometimes- 
improperly   written,   "Chiefest,    extremest,.   perfectest.. 
vjghtest,  most  universal,  most  supreme,?'  &c.?-^The  follow 
iiig  expressions  are  therefore  improper.    "He  sometime^ 
claims  admission  to  the  chiefest  offices."    "The  quarrel 
became  so  universal  and  national ;"  "A  method  of  attain- 
ing the  ?'io-/i/e«^  and  greatest  happiness."     The  phrase* 
s(»  perfect,  so  right,  so  extreme,  so  universal,  &c.  are  in 
correct;  because  ihtij  imply  that  one  thing  is  less  perfect. 
less  extreme,  &c.  than  another,  which  is  not  possible. 

7.  Inaccuracies  are  often  found  in  the  way  in  which  tli. 
degrees  of  comparison  are  applied  and  construed.     Tlu 
following  are  examples  of  wrong  construction  in  this  re 
spect ;  "This  noble  nation  hath,  of  all  others,  admitted 
fewer  corruptions."     The  word  feiver  is  here  construed 
precisely  as  if  it  were  the  superlative.     It  should  be. 
**This  noble  nation  hath  admitted  fewer  corruptions  that 
any  other."     We  commonly  say,  "Tliis  is  the  weakei 
of  the  two;"  or,  "The  weakest  of  the  two:"  but  the 
former   is   the    regular   mode    of    expression,    because 
there  are  only  two  things  compared.'   "The  vice  of  co- 
vetousness  is  what  enters  deepest  into  the  soul  of  any  >. 
other."  "He  celebrates  the  church  of  England  as  thet 
jnost  perfect  of  all  others."  Both  these  modes  of  expres 
sion  are  faulty :  we  vshould  not  say,  "The  best  of  an 
man,"  or,  "The  best  of  any  other  "man,"  for  "the  besi 
of  men."     The  sentences  may  be  corrected   by  sub- 
•stituting  the  comparative  in  the  room  of  the  superla 
five.     "The  vice,  &c.  is  what  enters  deeper  into  th 
soul   than  any  other."    "He  celebrates,   &c.    as   more 
perfect  than  any  other."  It  is  also  possible  to  retain 
the  superlative,  and  render  the  expression  grammati- 
cal.  "Covetousness,  of  all  vices,  enters  the  deepest  into 
the  soul. "    "He  celebrates,  &c.  as  the  most  perfect  of 
all  churches."     These  sentences  contain  other  errors, 
against  which  it  is  proper  to  caution  the  learner,    Th- 


Rule  8.)  STJiTAX.  149 

words  deeper  and  deepest^  being  intended  for  adverbs, 
should  have  been  more  deeply^  most  deeply.  The  phrases 
more  perfect^  and  most  perfect,  are  improper ;  because, 
perfection  admits  of  no  degrees  of  comparison.  We  maj 
say  nearer  or  nearest  to  perfection,  or  more  or  less  im- 
perfect. 

8.  In  some  cases,  adjectives  should  not  be  separated 
from  tlieir  substantives,  even  by  words  which  modify  their 
meaning,  and  make  but  one  sense  with  them:  as,  "A 
large  eribugh  number  surely."  It  should  be,  "A  num- 
ber large  enough,'^^  "The  tower  sort  of  people  are 
good  enough  judges  of  one  not  very  distant  from  them,". 


The  adjective  is  usually  placed  before  its  substantive : 
as,  "A  generous  man ;"  "How  amiable  a  woman  !"  The 
instances  in  which  it  comes  after  the  substantive,  are  the 
following. 

1st,  When  something  depends  upon  the  adjective ;  and 
when  it  gives  a  better  sound,  especially  in  poetry :  as. 
"A  man  generous  to  his  enemies ;"  "Feed  me  with  food 
convenient  for  me ;"  "x\  tree  three  feet  thickP  "A  body 
of  troops  fifty  thousand  strong;^''  "The  torrent  tumbling 
through  rocks  ah)mptP 

2d,  When  the  adjective  is  emphatical :  as,  "Alexander 
the  Great ^^"^  "Lewis  the  Bold;^^  "Goodness  infinite}^' 
*''Wisdom  imsearchable.''^ 

5d,  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  one  substantive : 
as,  "A  man  just,  wise,  and  charitable;"  "A  woman 
modest,  sensible,  and  virtuous." 

4th,  When  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  an  adverb : 
as,  "A  boy  regularly  studious;"  "A  girl  unaffectedly 
modest." 

5th,  When  the  verb  to  be,  in  any  of  its  variations, 
comes  between  a  substantive  and  an  adjective,  the  adjec- 
tive may  frequently  either  precede  or  follow  it:  as, 
"The  man  is  happy;  or,  happy  is  the  man  who  makes 
virtue  his  choice:'*'  "The  interview  was  delightful ;^^  or, 
^*deHghtful  was  the  interview." 

6th,  When  the  adjective  expresses  some  circumstance 
oi  a  substantive  placed  after  an  active  verb :  as,  "Va- 
N  ^  .  ' 


150  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rftle  S^' 

nitj  often  renders  its  possessor  despicable.^^  In  an  exela- 
matorj  sentence,  the  adjective  generally  precedes  the 
substantive ;  as,  "How  despicable  does  vanity  often  ren- 
der its  possessor!'' 

Tliere  is  sometimes  great  beauty,  as  well  asfor^e,  in 
placing  the  adjective  before  the  verb,  and  the  substan- 
tive immediately  after  it :  as,  "Great  is  the  Lord  !  just 
and  true  are  thy  ways,  thou  King  of  saints  !" 

Sometimes  the  word  all  is  emphatically  put  after  k 
number  of  particulars  compreliended  under  it.  "Ambi" 
tion,  interest,  honour,  all  concurred."  Sometimes  a  sub^ 
stantive,  which  likewise  comprehends  the  preceding  par- 
ticulars, is  used  in  conjunction  with  this  adjective :  as. 
•^•Royalists,  republicans,  churchmen,  sectaries,  courtiei 
patriots,  all  parties,  concurred  in  the  illusion." 
•►.An  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  plural  number,  will  some- 
times properly  associate  witli  a  singular  noun :  as,  "Our 
desire,  your  intention,  their  resignation."  This  associa- 
tion applies  rather  to  things  of  an  intellectual  nature, 
than  to  those  which  are  corporeal.  It  forms  an  excep- 
tion to  the  general  rule. 

A  substantive '  with  its  adjective  is  reckoned  as  on( 
compounded  word,  whence  they  often  take  another  ad-, 
jective,  and  sometimes  a  tliird,  and  so  on:  as,  "An  old 
man;  a  good  old  man;  a  very  learned,  judicious,  good 
old  man." 

Though  the  adjective  always  relates  to  a  substantive,-  - 
it  is,  in  many  instances,  put  as  if  it  were  absolute;  espe- 
cially wliere  tlie  noun  has  been  mentioned  before,  or  is 
easily  understood,  though  not  expressed :  as,  "I  often 
survey  the  green  fields,  as  I  am  very  fond  of  green  ;^^ 
"The  wise,  the  virtuous,  the  honoured,  famed,  and 
great,"  that  is,  "person  ;"  "The  twelve,"  that  is,  "apos- 
tles;" "Have  compassion  on  the  poor;  be  feet  to  the 
lame,  and  eyes  to  tlie  blindJ'^ 

Substantives  are  often  used  as  adjectives.  In  this  case, 
the  word  so  used  is  sometimes  unconnected  with  the  sub- 
stantive to  which  it  relates ;  sometimes  connected  with  it  - 
by  a  hyphen ;  and  sometimes  joined  to  it,  so  as  to  make 
the  two  words  coalesce.  The  total  separation  is  proper, 
when  either  of  the  two  words  is  long,  or  when  they  can- 
not be  fluently  pronounced  as  one  word;  as,  an  adjec 


Jlule  9.^  SYNTAX.  151 

tive  pronoun,  a  silver  watch,  a  stone  cistern :  the  hjrphen 
is  used,  when  both  the  words  are  short,  and  are  readily 
pronounced  as  a  sinde  word:  as,  coal-mine,  corn-millj 
fruit -tree^C^ie  words  coalesce,  when  they  are  readily 
pronounced  together;  have  a  long  established  associa- 
tion; and  are  m  frequent  use:  as,  honeycomb,  ginger- 
bread, inkhorn,  Yorkshire. 

Sometimes  the  adjective  becomes  a  substantive,  and 
Jias  another  adjective  joined  to  it :  as,  "Tlie  chief  good ;" 
"Tlie  vast  immense  oi  space." 

^Vhen  an  adjective  has  a  preposition  before  it,  the 
substantive  being  understood,  it  takes  the  nature  of  an 
atlverb,  and  is  considered  as  an  adverb :  as,  "In  general, 
iaparticulai,  in  haste,"  &c!l/that  is,  "Generally,  parti - 
tularly,  hastily." 

Enow  was  formerly  used  as  the  plural  of  enough:  but 
i  I  is  now  obsolete. 

RULE  IX. 

The  article  a  or  an  agrees  with  nouns  in  the  singular 
number  only,  individually  or  collectively:  as,  '*A 
christian,  an  infidel,  a  score,  a  thousand."  The  defi- 
nite article  the  may  agree  with  nouns  in  the  singular 
and  plural  number:  as,  '*The  garden,  the  houses,  the 
stars." 

The  articles  are  often  properly  omitted:  when  used, 
they  should  be  justly  applied,  according  to  their  dis- 
tinct nature:  as,  *'Gold  is  corrupting;  the  sea  is 
s;reen;  a  lion  is  bold." 

It  is  of  the  nature  of  both  tlie  articles  to  determine 
ci-  limit  the  thing  spoken  of.  *d  determines  it  to  be  one 
-ingle  thin^  of  the  kind,  leaving  it  still  uncertain  which: 
fhe  determmes  which  it  iSj  or  of  many,  wliich  thoy 
iue. 

The  following  passage  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the 
different  uses  of  «  and  the,  and  of  the  force  of  the  substan- 
tive without  any  article.  "Man  was  made  for  society, 
a  lid  ought  to  extend  his  good  will  to  all  men :  but  a  man » 

ill  naturally  entertain  a  more  particular  kindness  for  the 

(y I,  with' whom  he  has  the  most  frec^uent  intercourse;.. 

id  enter  into  a  still  closer  union  with  the  man  whose , 

iiiper  and  disposition  suit  best  with  his  own." 


152  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rillc  9. 

As  the  articles  are  sometimes  misapplied,  it  may  be  of 
some  use  to  exhibit  a  few  instances :  "And  I  persecuted 
this  way  unto  the  death. "  The  apostle  does  not  mean  any 
particular  sort  of  death,  but  death  in  general :  the  definite 
article  therefore  is  improperly  used:  it  ought  to  be  "unto 
death,"  without  any  article. 

"When  he,  the  Spirit  of  Truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide 
you  into  all  truth ;"  that  is,  according  to  this  translation, 
"into  all  ti-uth  whatsoever,  into  truth  of  all  kinds  ;'■ 
very  different  from  the  meaning  of  the  evangelist,  and 
from  the  original,  "into  all  the  truth;"  that  is,  "into  all 
evangelical  truth,  all  truth  necessary  for  you  to  know." 

"Who  breaks  a  butterfly  upon  a  wheel  f"  it  ought  to  be 
"///e  wheel,"  used  as  an  instrjirtnent  for  the  particular  pur- 
pose of  torturing  criminals.  "The  Almighty  hath  given 
reason  to  a  man  to  be  a  light  unto  him :"  it  should  rathei 
be,  "to  man^'^  in  general.  "This  day  is  salvation  com* 
to  this  house,  forasmuch  as  he  also  Is  the  son  of  Abra 
ham  :"  it  ought  to  be,  "a  son  of  Abraham." 

These  remarks  may  sei've  to  show  the  great  importance 
of  the  proper  use  of  the  article,  and  the  excellence  of  the 
English  language  in  this  respect;  which,  by  means  of  it 
two  articles,  does  most  precisely  determine  the  extent  oi 
signification  of  common  names. 

1.  A  nice  distinction  of  the  sense  is  sometimes  made  by 
the  use  or  omission  of  the  article  cu  If  I  say,  "He  be- 
haved with  a  little  reverence  ;"  my  meaning  is  positive. 
If  I  say,  "He  behaved  with  little  reverence ;"  my  mean- 
ing is  negative.  And  these  two  are  by  no  means  the  same, 
or  to  be  used  in  the  same  cases.  By  the  former,  I  rathei 
praise  a  person ;  by  the  latter,  I  dispraise  him.  For  the 
sake  of  this  distinction,  which  is  a  very  useful  one,  we  may 
better  bear  the  seeming  impropriety  of  the  article  a  before 
nouns  of  number.  When  I  say,  "There  were  few  men 
with  him  ;"  I  speak  diminutively,  and  mean  to  represent 
them  as  inconsiderable  :  whereas,  when  I  say ;  "There 
were  a  few  men  with  him ;"  I  evidently  intend  to  make 
*lie  most  of  them. 

2.  In  general,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  prefix  the  article 
fo  the  former  of  two  words  in  the  same  construction ; 
though  the  French  never  fail  to  repeat  it  in  this  case. 


Rule  IG.)  SYNTAX.  163 

"There  were  many  hours,  both  of  the  night  and  day^ 
which  he  could  spend,  without  suspicion,  in  solitary 
thought."  It  might  have  been  "of  the  night  and  of  the 
day .'^.  And,  for  tlie  sake  of  emphasis,  we  often  repeat  the 
article  in  a  series  of  epithets.^  "He  hoped  that  this  title 
would  secure  him  an  ample  and  an  independent  authority." 

3.  In  common  conversation,  and  in  familiar  style,  we 
li  vMjuently  omit  the  articles,  which  might  be  inserted  with 
jnopriety  in  writing,  especially  in  a  grave  style.  "At 
worst,  time  might  be  gained  by  this  expedient."  "At  the 
worst,"  would  have  been  better  in  this  place.  "Give  me 
iiere  John  Baptist's  head."  There  would  have  been  more 
dignity  in  saying,  "John  the  Baptist's  head :"  or,  "The 
head  of  John  the  Baptist." 

The  article  the  has  sometimes  a  good  effect  in  distin- 
guishing a  person  by  an  epithet.  "In  the  history  of  Henry 
the  fourth,  by  Father  Daniel,  we  are  surprised  at  not  find- 
ing him  the  great  man."  "I  own  I  am  often  surprised  that 
he^hould  have  treated  so  coldly,  a  man  so  much  the  gen- 
tleRan."  —_ 

This  article  is  often  elegantly  put,  after  the  manner  of 
the  French,  for  the  pronoun  possessive :  as,  "He  looks 
him  full  in  the  face ;"  that  is,  "in  his  face."  "In  his 
presence  they  were  to  strike  the  forehead  on  the  ground  ;'* 
that  is,  "their  foreheads.''^ 

We  sometimes,  according  to  the  French  manner,  repeat 
tlie  same  article,  wlien  the  adjective,  on  account  of  any 
clause  depending  upon  it,  is  put  after  the  substantive.  "Of 
all  the  considerable  governments  among  the  Alps,  a  com- 
monwealth is  a  constitution  the  most  adapted  of  any  to  the 
poverty  of  those  countries."  "With  sucli  a  specious  title 
as  that  of  blood,  which  with  the  multitude  is  always  a 
claim,  the  strongest,  and  the  most  easily  comprehended." 
"They,  are  not  tne  men  in  the  nation  the  most  difficult  to 
be  replaced." 

RULE  X. 

One  substantive  governs  another,  signifying  a  dif- 
ferent thing,  in  the  possessive  or  genitive  case:  as, 
<*My  father's  house;"  <*Man's  happiness;"  ^'Virtue's 
reward," 


154  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Rulc  10. 

^^  When  the  annexed  substantive  signifies  the  same  thing 
as  the  first,  there  is  no  variation  of  case :  as,  "George, 
king  of  Great  Britain,  elector  of  Hanover,"  &c.;  "Pom- 
pey  contended  with  Caesar,  the  greatest  general  of  his 
time;"  '^Religion,  the  support  of  adversity,  adorns  pros- 
perity/' Nouns  thus  circtimstanced  are  said  to  be  in 
apposition  to  each  other.  The  interposition  of  a  relative 
and  verb  will  sometimes  break  the  construction :  as, 
'*Pompey  contended  with  Caesar,  who  ivas  the  greatest 
general  of  his  time."  Here  the  word  general  is  in  the 
nominative  case,  governed  by  note  4,  under  rule  xi. 

The  preposition  0/ joined  to  a  substantive,  is  not  alwav-. 
equivalent  to  the  possessive  case.  It  is  only  so,  when  th' 
expression  can  be  converted  into  the  regular  form  of  tli; 
possessive  case.  We  can  say,  "The  reward  of  virtue,*'^ 
and  "Virtue's  reward:"  but  though  it  is  proper  to  say, 
"A  crown  of  gold,"  we  cannot  convert  the  expression 
into  the  possessive  case,  and  say,  "Gold's  crown." 

Substantives  govern  pronouns  as  well  as  nouns,  in  the 
possessive  case :  as,  "Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit  :'* 
"Goodness  brings  its  reward ;"  "That  desk  is  Twine.'-ifc- 

The  genitive  its  is  often  improperly  used  for  ^tis  or  it  is  .- 
as,  "Its  my  book,"  instead  of  "It  is  my  book." 
•^he  pronoun  his.  when  detached  from  the  noun  tp  which 
it  relates,  is  to  be  considered,  not  as  a  possessive  pronoun, 
but  as  the  genitive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun:  as, 
"This  composition  is  Afs."  ''Whose  book  is  that?  ''His.'' 
If  we  used  the  noun  itself,  we  should  say,  "This  compo- 
sition is  John's."^^' 'Whose  book  is  that?"  "Eliza's.'* 
The  position  will  be  still  more  evident,  when  we  consider 
that  botli  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  must 
have  a  similar  construction:  ''Is  it  her  or  his  honour  that 
is  tarnished  r"  "It  is  not  hers,  but  /n's." 
'Sometimes  a  substantive  in  the  genitive  or  possessive 
case  stands  alone,  the  latter  one  by  which  it  is  governed 
being  understood :  as,  "I  called  at  the  bookseller's,"  that 
is,  "at  the  bookseller's  sAojo."-^ 

1.  If  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  genitive  case, 
the  apostrophe  with  s  is  annexed  to  the  last,  and  under- 
stood to  the  rest:  as,  "John  aiid  Eliza's  books."  "This 
was  my  father,  mother,  and  uncle's  advice."  But  wh^n 
any  words  intervene,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  increased 


Rule  10.)  SYNTAX.  155 

pause,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  should  be  annexed  to 
each :  as,  "They  are  John's  as  well  as  Eliza's  books  ;'*^ 
^•I  had  the  physician's,  the  surgeon's,  and  the  apothe> 
carj's  assistance." 

2.  In  poetry,  the  additional  s  is  frequently  omitted,  but 
the  apostrophe  retained,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  sub- 
stantives of  the  plural  number  ending  in  s:  as,  "The 
wrath  of  Peleus'  son.'lA-This  seems  not  so  allowable  in 
prose ;  which  the  following  erroneous  examples  will  de- 
monstrate: "Moses' minister ;"  "Phinehas'  wife;"  '•Fes- 
tus  came  into  Felix' room."  ^*These  answers  were  made 
to  tlie  witness'  questions."  But  in  cases  which  would 
give  too  much  of  the  hissing  sound,  or  increase  the  diffi- 
culty of  pronunciation,  the  omission  takes  place  even  in 
prose :  as,  "For  righteousness'  sake ;"  "For  conscience' 
sake." 

3.  Little  explanatory  circumstances  are  particularly 
awkward  between  a  genitive  case,  and  the  woid  which 
usually  follows  it:  as,  ''She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's, 
as  she  called  him,  excellent  understanding."  It  ought 
to.J>e,  ''the  excellent  understanding  of  the  farmer,  as 
she  called  him." 

4.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  terms  signifying  a  name 
and  an  office,  or  of  any  expressions  by  which  one  part  is 
descriptive  or  explanatory  of  tlie  otlier,  it  may  occasiorji 
some  doubt  to  which  of  them  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case 
should  be  annexed ;  or  whether  it  sliould  be  subjoined  to 
them  both.  Thus,  some  would  say;  "I  left  the  "parcel  at 
Smith's  the  bookseller;"  others,  "at  Smith  the  booksel- 
ler's :"  and  perhaps  others,  "at  Smith's  the  bookseller's." 
The  ffi'st  of  these  forms  is  most  agreeable  to  the  English 
idiom ;  and  if  the  addition  consists  of  tv/o  or  more  words, 
the  case  seems  to  be  less  dubious:  as,  "I  left  the  parcel 
at  Smith's,  the  bookseller  and  stationer."  But  as  this 
subject  requires  a  little  further  explanation  to  make  it  in- 
telligible to  the  learners,  we  shall  add  a  few  observations 
tending  to  unfold  its  principles. 

A  phrase  in  which  the  words  are  so  connected  and  de- 
pendent, as  to  admit  of  no  pause  before  the  conclusion, 
necessarily  requires  the  genitive  sign  at  or  near  the  end 
of  the  phrase :  as,  "Whose  prerogative  is  it?  It  is  the  king 
of  Great  Britain's ;"  "That  is  the  duke  of  Bridge  water's 


156  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (Rule  10. 

canal,"  *'The  bishop  of  LandafTs  excellent  book;"  "The 
lord  major  of  London's  authority j"  "The  captain  of 
the  guard's  house." 

When  words  in  apposition  follow  each  other  in  quick 
succession,  it  seems  also  most  agreeable  to  our  idiom,  to 
give  the  sign  of  the  genitive  a  similar  situation ;  especial' 
if  the  noun  which  governs  the  genitive  be  expressed :  [  - 
"The   emperor  Leopold's;"  "Dionjsius  the  tyrant's;*' 
"For  David  my  servants  sake;"   "Give  ine  John  tl  ■ 
Baptises  head ;"  "Paul  tlie  apostle^ s  advice. "    But  \^'l ; f ' •  \ 
a  pause  is  proper,  and  the  governing  noun  not  expressc!  : 
and  when  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence  is  extended ; 
appears  to  be  requisite  that  the  sign  should  be  applied  t 
the  first  genitive,  and  understood  to  the  other :  as,   *'l  r; 
side  at  lord  Stormont's,  my  old  patron  and  benefactor: 
''Whose  glory  did  he  emulate?  He  emulated  Caesar's,  th*- 
greatest  general  of  antiquity."  In  the  following  sentences, 
it  would  be  very  awkward  to  place  the  sign,  either  at  th(^, 
end  of  each  of  the  clauses,  or  at  the  end  of  the  latter  one 
alone:  ''These  psalms  are  David's,  the  king,' priest,  and 
prophet  of  tlie  Jewish  people;"  "We  staid  a  month  at 
lord  Lyttelton's,  the  ornament  of  his  country,  and  the 
friend  of  every  virtue."     The  sign  of  the  genitive  casv. 
may  very  properly  be  understood  at  the  end  of  these* 
members,  an  ellipsis  rt  the  latter  part  of  sentences  being 
a  common  construction  in  our  language;  as  the  learner 
will  see  by  one  or  two  examples :  "Tliey  wished  to  sub- 
mit, but  he  did  not;"  that  is,  "he  did  not  wish  to  submit ;'' 
•»He  said  it  was  their  concern,  but  not  his;"  that  is,  "/?r' 
his  concern^ 

If  we  annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the  lasr 
^clause  only,  we  shall  perceive  that  a  resting  place  is  want  - 
ed,  and  that  the  connecting  circumstance  is  placed  too  rv' 
motely,    to  be    either    perspicuous   or  agreeable :    as 
■^'Whose  glory  did  he  emulate?"  "He  emulated  Cassni 
the  greatest  general  of  antiquity'' 8 p^  "These  psalms  a: 
David,  the  king,  priest,  and  propliet  of  the  Jewish  /?f f 
ple^s,^^    It  is  much  better  to  say,  "This  is  PauVs  advice, 
the  christian  hero,  and  great  apostle  of  tlie  gentiles." 
thin,  "This  is  Paul  the  christian  hero,  and  great  apostb' 
of  the  gentiks^  advice."     On  tiie  other  hand,  tlie  appUt  a  - 
tion  of  the  genitive  sign  t©  botli  or  all  of  the  nouns  m  ap- 


Rule  10.]  SYNTAX.  157 

position,  would  be  generally  harsh  and  displeasing,  and 
perhaps  in  some  cases  incorrect:  as,  "The  emperor's 
Leopold's;"  "King's  George's;"  "Charles'  the  second's;" 
"The  parcel  was  left  at  Smith's  the  bookseller's  and  sta- 
tioner's." The  rules  which  we  have  endeavoured  to  elu- 
cidate, will  prevent  the  inconvenience  of  both  thes<^ 
modes  of  expression;  and  tlie  j  appear  to  be  simple,  per- 
spicuous, and  consistent  with'^the  idiom  of  the  language^ 

5.  The  English  genitive  has  often  an  unpleasant  sound; 
so  that  we  daily  make  more  use  of  the  particle  of  to  ex- 
press the  same  relation.  There  is  something  awkward 
m  the  following  sentences,  in  which  this  method  has  not 
been  taken.  "The  general,  in  the  army's  name,  publish- 
ed a  declaration."  "The  commons'  vote."  "The  lords' 
house."  "Unless  he  is  very  ignorant  of  the  kingdom's 
condition."  It  were  certainly  better  to  say,  "In  the  name 
of  the  army;"".^The  vote  of  the  commons;"  ^'Tlie  house 
of  lords;"  "Tlie  condition  of  tlie  kingdom."  It  is  also 
rather  har^  to  use  two  English  genitives  with  the  same 
substantive:  as,  "Whom  he  acquainted  with  the  pope's 
and  the  Icing's  pleasure."  "The  pleasure  of  the  pope  and 
the  king,"  would  have  been  better. 

^*>*-We  sometimes  meet  with  three  substantives  dependent 
on  one  another,  and  connected  by  the  preposition  q/"  ap- 
plied to  each  of  them:  as,  "The  severit}'  of  the  distress  of 
the  son  of  the  king,  touched  the  nation;"  but  this  mode 
of  expression  is  not  to  be  recoii^mended.  It  would  be 
better  to  say,  "The  severe  distress  of  the  king's  son, 
touched  the  nation."  We  have  a  strikine;  instance  of  this 
laborious  mode  of  expression,  in  the  following  sentence: 
"Cy  some  o/*the  books  o/"each  q/"  these  classes  o/"  litera- 
ture, a  catalogue  will  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  v^'ork.^i* 

6.  In  some  cases,  we  use  both  the  genitive  termination 
and  tlie  preposition  of:  as,  "It  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaar 
Newton's."  Sometimes  indeed,  uuless  we  throw  the  sen- 
tence into  another  form,  tliis  method  is  ariasolutely  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  to  give  the  idea 
of  property,  strictly  so  culled,  v/hich  is  the  most  important 
of  the  relations  expressed  by  the  j^enitlvc  case:  for  the 
expreiisions,  "This  pictureoi  my  friend,"  and  "This  pic- 
ture of  my  friend's,"  suggest  very  diu'erent  ideas.  The 
latter  only  is  tliat  of  property  in  llie  strictcst'«ense.  The 

0 


158  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  j_Hule   IQ. 

idea  would,  doubtless,  be  conveyed  in  a  better  manner, 
by  saying,  "This  picture  belonging  to  my  friend." 

When  this  double  genitive,  as  some  grammarians  term 
it,  is  not  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  especially 
in  a  grave  style,  it  is  generally  omitted.  Except  to  pre-  ' 
vent  ambiguity,  it  seems  to  be  allowable  only  in  ^ases 
which  suppose  the  existence  of  a  plurality  of  subjects  of 
the  same  kind.  In  the  expressions,  "A  subject  of  the 
emperor's;"  "A  sentiment  of  my  brother's;",  more  than 
one  subject,  and  one  sentiment,  are  supposed  to  belong! 
to  the  possessor.  But  when  this,  plurality  is  neither  in- 
timated, nor  necessarily  supposed,  the  double  genitive, 
except  as  before  mentioned,  should  not  be  used:  as, 
•'This  house  of  the  governor  is  very  commodious;"  "The 
crown  of  the  king  was  stolen;"  "That  privilege  of  the 
scholar  was  never  abused."  (See  page  51.)  But  after  all 
that  can  be  said  for  this  double  genitive,  as  it  is  termed, 
some  grammarians  think  that  it  would  be  better  to  avoid 
the  use  of  it  altogether,  and  to  give  the^lpentiment 
another  forra  of  expression. 

7.  When  an  entire  clause  of  a  sentence,  beginning  witli 
a  participle  of  the,  present  tense,  is  used  as  one  name,  or 
to  express  one  idea  or  circumstance,  the  noun  on  which** 
it  depends  may  be  put  in  the  genitive  case;  thus,  instead 
of  saying,  "What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing 
his  servant  so  liastily?"  that  is,  "What  is  the  reason  of 
this  person  in  dismissing  his  servant  so  hastily?"  we  may 
say,  and  perhaps  ouglit  to  say,  "What  is  the  reason  of 
this  person's  dismissing  of  Ms  servant  so  hastily?"  Ju- 
as  we  say,  "What  is  the  reason  of  this  person's  hasty  di> 
mission  of  his  servant?"    So  also,  v/e  say,  "I  remembei.\ 
it  being  reckoned  a  great  exploit;"  or  more  properly,  "jp 
remember  its  being  reckoned,"  &c.     The  following  sen- 
tence is  correct  and  proper:  "Much  will  depend  on  tlir 
pupWs  composing,  but  more  on  his  reai/i/ig- frequently."* 
It  would  not  be  <iccurate  to  say,  "Much  will  depend  on 
the  pupil  composing,'^  &c.  We  also  properly  say;  *'This 
will  be  the  eftect  of  the  pupil's  composing  frequently;*' 
Instead  of,  ^"Of  the  pupil  composing  frequently." 


Rule  11.]  SYNTAX.  159 

RULE  XI. 

Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case:  as,  **Truth 
ennobles  Aer;"  **She  comforts  me;"  **They  support 
ti5;"  << Virtue  rewards  Aer/(?//oz^^ers."  -  , 

In  English,  the  nominative  case,  denoting  the  subject, 
usually  ^oes  before  the  verb;  and  the  objective  case,  de- 
noting the  object,  follows  tlie  verb  active;  and  it  is  the 
order  that  determines  the  case  in  nouns;  as,  "Alexander 
conquered  the  Persians."  But  the  pronotm  having  a 
proper  form  for  each  of  those  cases,  is  sometimes,  when 
it  is  in  the  objective  case,  placed  before  the  verb;  and, 
when  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  follows  the  object  and 
verb;  as,  ''Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  ^zm  declare  I 
unto  you." 

This  position  of  tlie  pronoun  sometimes  occasions  its 
proper  case  and  government  to  be  neglected:  as  in  the 
following  instances:  '*Who  should  I  esteem  more  than 
the  wise  and  good?"  "By  the  character  of  those  who  you 
choose  for  your  friends,  your  own  is  likely  to  be  formed." 
"Those  are  the  persons  who  he  thought  true  to  his  inte- 
. rests."  "Wlio  should  I  see  the  other  day  but  my  old 
friend."  "Whosoever  the  court  favours."  In  all  these 
places  it  ought  to  be  whom,  the  relative  being  governed 
m  the  objective  case  by  the  verbs  "esteem,  choose, 
thought,"  &c.  "He,  who  under  all  proper  circumstances, 
has  the  boldness  to  speak  truth,  choose  for  thy  friend;" 
It  should  be  *'Aim  who,"  &c. 

^4^erbs  neuter  do  not  act  upon,  or  govern,  nouns  and 
pronouns.  "-He  sleeps;  they  7/iwse,"  &.c.  are  not  transi- 
tive. They  are,  therefore,  not  followed  by  an  objective 
case,  specifying  the  object  of  an  action.  But  when  this 
case,  or  an  object  of  action,  comes  after  such  verbs, 
though  it  may  carry  the  appearance  of  being  governed 
by  them,  it  is  affected  by  a  preposition  or  some  other 
word  understood:  as,  "He  resided  many  years  [that  is, 
for  or  during  many  years]  in  that  street;"  *'He  rod«. 
several  miles  [that  is,/br  or  through  the  space  of  several 
miles]  on  that  day;"  "He  lay  an  hour  [that  is,  during  an 
hour]  in  great  torture."  In  the  phrases,  "To  dream  a 
dream/'  "To  live  a  virtuous  life,"  •^To  run  a  race,"  "To 


tBO  ENGLXSR  GRAMMAR.  fRufeilt 

walk  the  horse, '  "To  dance  the  child,"  the  verbs  cei 
cainly  assume  a  transitive  form,  and  maj  not,  in  thes< 
cases,  be  improperly  denominated  transitive  verbs,  y^ 

1.  Some  writers,  however,  use  certain  neuter  verlfi^as 
if  they  were  transitive,  putting  after  them  the  objective 
case,  agreeably  to  the  French  constniction  of  reciprocal 
verbs;  but  this  custom  is  so  foreign  to  the  idiom  of  the 
Ktiglish  tongue,  that  it  ought  not  to  be  adopted  or  imi- 
iated.  The  following  are  some  instances  of  this  practice, 
'-'Bepenting  him  of  nis  design."  "The  kin*  soon  found 
reason  to  repent  him  of  his  provoking  such  dangerous 
enemies."  "The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge 
themselves  on  the  subject."  ''The  nearer  his  successes 
•Approached  him  to  the  throne."  "Go^ee  thee  away  into 
the  land  of  Judah."  "I  think  it  by  no  mean?  a  fit  and 
decent  thing  to  vie  charities^"  &c.  "They  have  spent 
their  whole  time  and  pains  to  agree  the  sacred  with  thr 
profane    chronology." 

2.  Active  verbs  are  sometimes  as  improperly  made 
neuter;  as,  * 'I  must /)rem2se  with  three  circumstances." 
* 'Those  that  think  to  ingratiate  with  him  by  ealumni 
iiting  me." 

3.  The  neuter  verb  is  varied  like  the  active;  but^ 
having  in  some  degree  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  ad- 
mits, in  many  instances,  of  the  passive  form,  retaining 
still  the  neuter  signification,  chiefly  in  such  verbs  as  sig- 
nify some  sort  of  motion,  or  change  of  place  or  condition: 
as,  "I  am  come;  I  was  gone;  I  am  grown;  I  was  fallen.'' 
The  following  examples,  however,  appear  to  be  errone- 
ous, in  giving  the  neuter  verbs  a  passive  form,  instead  of 
an  active  one,  "The  rule  of  our  holy  religion,  from 
^vhich  we  are  infinitely  sweriyecV  "The  whole  dbligatioit 
of  that  law  and  covenant  was  also  ceased.'''^  '''Whose 
number  was  now  amounted  to  three  hundred."  "This 
mareschal,  upon  some  discontent,  was  entered  into  a 
conspiracy  against  his  master."  "At  the  end  of  a  cam- 
paign, when  half  the  men  are  deserted  or  killed."  It 
should  be,  ^''have  swerved,  A«rf  ceased,"  &c, 

4.  The  verb  to  be,  through  all  its  variations,  has  the 
same  case  after  it,  as  tliat' which  next,precedes  it:  "/  an. 
he  whom  they  invited;"  "/f  may  be  (or  might  have  been 
he,  but  it  cannot  be  fSr  could  not  have  been)  /,•"  ^^It  v 


Rule  12.]  SYNTAX.  161 

impossible  to  be  they;^^  ^''It  seems  to  have  been  he^  who 
conducted  himself  so  wisely;"  "/^  appeared  to  be  she 
that  transacted  the  business;"  '*•!  understood  it  to  be 
Awn;"  "I  believe  it  to  have  ])een  themy^  "We  at  first 
took  it  to  be  Her;  but  were  afterwards  convinced  that  it 
was  not  sAe."  *'He  is  not  the  person  who  it  sj^emed  he 
was."  *'He  is  really  the  person  ivho  he  appeared  to  be." 
*'»She  is  not  now  the  woman  whoinihe.j  represented  her 
to  have  been."  '•^fVhom  do  you  fancy  /n*m  to  be?"  By 
these  examples,  it  appears  that  this  substantive  verb  has 
no  government  of  case,  but  serves,  in  all  its  forms,  as  a 
conductor  t^  the  cases;  so  that  the  two  cases  wliich,  in. 
the  construction  of  the  sentence,  are  the  next  before  and 
after  it,  must  always  be  alike.  Perhaps  this  subject  will 
be  more  intelligible  to  the  learner,  by  observing,  that  the 
words  in  the  cases  preceding  and  following  the  verb  to  be, 
may  be  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  oSier.  Thus,  in 
the  sentence^  "L understood  it  to  be  him,"  the  words  it 
and  him  are  in  apposition;  that  is,  "they  refer  to  the 
same  thing,  and  are  m  the  same  case." 

The  following  sentences  contain  deviations  from  the 
nde,  and  exhibit  the  pronoun  in  a  wrong  case:  "It  might 
have  been  him,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it;"  <  'Though  I 
was  blamed,  it  could  not  have  been  me;"  "I  saw  one 
whom  I  took  to  be  sAe;"  "She  is  the  person  loho  I  un- 
derstood it  to  have  been;"  ^'TVIio  do  you  think  me  to  be?" 
"Wiom  do  men  say  that  I  am?"  "And  whom  think  ye 

that  I  am?" See  the  Octavo  Grammar. 

■—Passive  verbs  which  signify  naming,  &c.  have  the  same 
case  before  and  after  them:  as,  "He  was  called  Caesar; 
She  was  named  Penelope;  Homer  is  styled  the  prince  of 
poets;  James  was  created  a  duke;  The  general  was  sa- 
luted emperor;  The  professor  was  appointed  tutor  to  the 
pnnr.p."^ 

5.  The  auxiliary  let  governs  the  objective  case:  as, 
"Let  him  beware;"  "Let  us  judge  candidly;"  "Let 
them  not  presume;"  ''Let  George  study  his  lesson." 

RULE  XII/ 

One  verb  governs  another  that  follows  it,  or  de- 
fends upon  it,  in  the  infinitive  mood:  as,  **Cease  tQ 
02 


152  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR.  fftulc  12. 

do  evil;  learn  to  do  well;"  **We  should  be  prepared 
to  render  an  account  of  our  actions." 

The  preposition  to,  though  generally  used  before 
the  latter  verb,  is  sometimes  properly  omitted:  as^ 
^*I  heard  him  say  it;"  instead  of  ^Ho  say  it." 

XThe  verbs  which  have  commonly  other  verbs  following 
fhem  in  the  infinitive  mood,  without  the  sign  to,  are  Bid, 
dare,  need,  make,  see^  hear,  feel;  and  also,  let,  not  used  ^ 
as  an  auxiliaiy;  and  perhaps  a  fc^v/  others:  asj."I  bade 
him  do  iti"  *'Ye  dare  not  do  it;"  *'I  saw  him  do  it;"  <'I 
heard  him  say  it;"  "Thou  lettest  him  go*"\. 

1.  In  the  following  passages,  the  word  to,  tM  sign  of  the 
infinitive  mood,  where  it  is  distinguished  by  Italic  cha- 
racters, is  superfluous  and  improper.  "I  have  observed 
«ome  satirists  to  use,"  &c.  ,.^'To  see  so  many  to  make  so 
little  conscience  of  solreat  a  sin."  "It  cannot  but  be  a 
delightful  spectacle  to  God  and  angels,  to  see  a  young 
person,  besieged  by  powerful  temptations  on  every  side^ 
to .  acquit  himself  gloriously,  and  resolutely  to  hold  out 
against  the  most  violent  assaults;  to  behold  one  in  the 
prime  and  flower  of  his  a»e,  that  is  courted  by  pleasures 
and  honours,  by  the  devif,  and  all  the  bewitchmg  vani-  ^ 
ties  of  the  world,  to  reject  all  these^  and  to  cleave  stead*  ' 
fastly  unto  God." 

'^liis  mood  has  also  been  improperly  used  in  the  follow-  ' 
ing  places:  "I  am  not  like  other  men,  to  envy  the  talents 
I  cannot  reach. 'V* 'Grammarians  have  denied,  or  at  least 
doubted,  them  toThe  genuine."  '^That  all  our  doings  may 
be  ordered  by  thy  governance,  to  do  always  what  i» 
righteous  in  thy  sight." 


v^he  infinitive  is  frerpiently  governed  by  adjectives^ 
substantives,  and  participles;  as,  "He  is  eagef  to  learn;" 
^*She  is  worthy  to  be  lovedt''"**They  have  a  desire  to  im- 
prove;" "Endeavouring  to  persuade." 

The  infinitive  mood  has  much  of  the  nature  of  a  sub- 
stantive, expressing  the  action  itself  which  the  verb  signi- 
fies, as  the  participle  has  the  nature  of  an  adjective. — 
Thus  the  infinitive  mood  does  the  office  of  a  substantive 
in  different  cases:  in  the  nominative:  as,  "To  play  is  plea* 
wnti"  in  the  objective:  as,  "Boys  love  to  play}^^  "For  (: 


Rule  15.]  SYKTAX.  163 

tvill  is  present  with  mej  but  to  perform  that  which  is 
good,  I  find  not." 

The  infinitive  mood  is  often  made  absolute,  or  used 
independently  on  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  supplying  the 
place  of  the  conjunction' Me^  with  the  potential  mood: 
as,  "To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault;"  "To  be^in 
with  the  first;"  '*To  proceed;"  "To  conclude;"  that  is, 
•*That  I  may  confess,"  &c.  ^ 

RULE  XIIi; 

In  the  use  of  words  and  phrases  which,  in  point  of 
lime,  relate  to  each  other,  a  due  regard  to  that  relation 
should  be  observed.  Instead  of  saying,  **The  Lord 
hath  given,  and  the  Lord-  hath  taken  away;"  we 
should  say,  *'Tlie  Lord  gave,  and  the  Lord  hath 
taken  away."  Instead  of,  '*I  remember  the  family  m6re 
than  twenty  years;"  it  should  be,  '^I  have  remembered 
the  family  more  than  twenty  years." 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  particular  rules  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs  with  respect  to 
one  another,  so  that  they  may  be  proper  and  consistent* 
^  The  best  rule  that  can  be  given,  is  this  very  general  one; 
"  "To  observe  what  the  sense  necessarily  requires."     It 
•may,  however,  be  of  use  to  give  a  few  examples  of  irre- 
^  gular  construction.     "The  last  week  I  intended  to  have 
^  ivritten,^^  is  a  very  common  phrase;  the  infinitive  being 
•in  the  past  time,  as  well  as  the  verb  which  it  follows.  But 
.Jt  is  certainly  wrong;  for  how  long  soever  it  now  is  since 
.  I  thought  of  writing,  "to  write"  was  then  present  to  me, 
^and  must  still  be  considered  as  present,  when  I  bring  back 
^that  time,  and  the  thoughts  or  it.     It  ought,  therefore, 
;^  to  be,  "The  last  week  I  intended  to  write.^^    The  fol- 
^  lowing  sentences  are  also  erroneous:  "I  cannot  excuse 
-  the  rertiissness  of  tliose  whose  business  it  should  have 
been,  as  it  certainly  was  their  interest,  to  have  interposed 
^,  their  good  offices."  "There  were  two  circumstances  which 
^.  made  it  necessary  for  them  to  have  lost  no  time."  "His- 
tory painters  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  have  invented 
such  a  species  of  beings."  They  ought  to  be,  'Ho  inter- 
wse,  to  loscp  to  invent, ^^    "On  the  mon-ow,  because  he 


164  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [Rule  13* 

should  have  known  the  certainty,  wherefore  he  was  ac- 
cused of  the  Jews,  he  loosed  him."  It  oudit  to  be,  <<be- 
cause  he  wotild  knoiv,''^  or  rather,  ''being  ivuling  to  knowP 

**The  blind  man  said  unto  him,  Lord,  that  I  might 
receive  my  sigiit."  "If  by  any  means  I  might  attain  unto 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead;"  'hnay^^^  in  both  places,  \ 
would  have  been  better.  "From  his  biblical  knowledge, 
he  appears  to  study  the  Scnptures  with  great  attention)" 
^'to  have  studied,^''  &.c.  "I^reared  that  I  should  have  lost 
it,  before  I  arrived  at  the  city;"  *^sJio,uld  lose  it. "  "I  had 
rather  walk;"  It  sliould  be,  "I  would  rather  walk."  "It 
would  have  afforded  me  no  satisfaction,  if  I  could  perform 
it:"  it  should  be,  "If  I  coidd  have  performed  it;"  or,  "It 
would  afford  me  no  satisfaction,  it  I  eould  perform  \iP  ' 

To  preserve  consistency  in  the  time  of  verbs,  we  must  : 
1  ecollect  that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  and 
imperfect  tenses  often  caiTy  with  them  a  future  sens« 
and  that  the  auxiliaries  should  a.nd  would,  in  the  impei 
feet  times,  are  used  to  express  the  present  and  future 
as  well  as  the  past:  for  which  see  page  75. 

1.  It  i&  proper  further  to  observe,  that  verbs  of  t!i 
infinitive  mood  in  the  following  form;  "to  write,"  "to  b* 
writing,"  and  "to  be  written,"  always  denote  something 
contemporary  ivith  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  w 
subsequent  to  it:  but  when  verbs  of  that  mood  are  ex- 
pressed as  follows; ^*To  have  been  writing,"  "to  have 
Avritten,"  and  *'to  have  been  written,"  thpy  always  de- 
note something  antecedent  to  the  time  of  the  governing 
verb.     This  remark  is  thought  to  be  of  importance;  for   > 
if  duly  attended  to,  it  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient   ' 
to  direct  iis  in  the  relative  application  of  these  tenses. 

The  following  sentence  is  properly  and  analogically 
expressed:  "I  found  him  better  than  I  expected  to  find 
liim."  "Expected  to  have  found  him,"  is  irreconcilable 
alike  to  grammar  and  to  sense.     Indeed,  all  verbs  ex- 
pressive of  hope,  desire,  intention,  or  command,  must 
invariably  be  followed  by  the  present,  and  not  the  per 
feet  of  the  infinitive.  Every  person  would  perceive  a 
error  in  this  expression;  "It  is  long  since  I  commands 
him  to  have  done  it:"  Yet  "expected  to  have  foiind,^^  i 
MO  better.    It  is  as  clear  that  uit  finding  must  be  postt 


Rule  IS.3  stNTA*.  ife 

rior  to  the  expectation,  as  that  the  ohediehte  ifiTist  be 
posterior  to  the  command. 

In  the  sentence  which  follows,  the  verb  is  with  pro- 
priety put  in  the  perfect  tense  of  the  infinitive  mood;  "It 
would  have  afforded  me  great  pleasure,  as  often  as  I  re- 
flected upon  it,  to  have  been  the  messenger  of  such  intel- 
ligence." As  the  message,  in  this  instance,  was  ante- 
cedent to  the  j)leasure,  and  not  contemporary  with  it, 
the  verb  expressive  of  the  message  must  aenote  that  an- 
tecedence, by  bein^  in  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  If 
the  message  and  the  pleasure  had  been  referred  to  as 
contemporary,  the  subsequent  verb  would,  with  equal 
propriety,  have  been  put  in  the  present  of  the  infinitive: 
as,  **It  would  have  afforded  me  great  pleasure,  to  be  tiie 
messenger  of  such  intelligence."  In  the  former  instance, 
the  phrase  In  que*5tion  is  equivalent  to  these  words;  "If 
I  had  been  the  messenger;"  in  the  latter  instance,  to  this 
expression;  ^^ Being  the  messenger." — For  a  further  dis- 
cussion of  this  subject,,  see  the  Eleventh  edition  of  the 
Key  to  the  Exercises,  p.  60,  and  the  Octavo  Grammar, 

RULE  XIII. 

It  is  proper  to  inform  the  learner,  that,  in  order  to 
express  the  past  time  with  the  defective  verb  ought,  the 
perfect  of  the  infinitive  must  always  be  used:  as,  *'He 
ought  to  have  r/o7ieit."  When  we  use  this  verb,  this  is 
the  only  possible  way  to  distinguish  the  past  from  the 
present.  ; 

In  support  of  tlie  positions  advanced  under  this  rule, 
we  can  produce  the  sentiments  of  eminent  grammarians; 
amongst  whom  are  Lowth  and  Campbell.  But  there  are 
some  writers  on  grammar,  who  strenuously  maintain,  that 
the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive  ouglit  to  be  in  the  past 
tense,  when  the  verb  which  governs  it,  is  in  the  past  time. 
Though  this  cannot  be  admitted,  in  the  instances  which 
are  controverted  under  this  rule,  or  in  any  instances  of  a 
similar  nature,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  many 
cases,  in  which  the  thing  referred  to  preceded  the  go- 
verning verb,  it  would  be  proper  and  allowable.  We 
may  say;  "From  a  con\  orsation  I  once  had  with  him,  he 
appeared  to  have  studied  Homer  with  great  ca?e  and  judg- 
ment." It  would  be  proper  also  to  say,  ''From  his  con- 
versation, he  appears  to  have  studied  Homer  with  great 


16Q  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  (TJuk  IS.' 

care  and  judgment;"  "That  unhappy  man  is  supposed  to 
have  died  bv  violence."  These  examples  are  not  only 
consistent  with  our  rule,  but  they  confirm  and  illustrate 
it.yit  is  the  tense  of  the  governing  verb  only,  that  marks 
what  is  called  the  absolute  time;  the  tense  of  the  verb 
governed,  marks  solely  its  relative  time  with  respect  to 
the  other.  -^ 

.To  assert,  as  some  writers  do,  that  verbs  in  the  infini- 
tive mood  have  no  tenses,  no  relative  distinctions  of  pre-' 
sent,  past,  and  future,  is  inconsistent  with  just  gramma- 
tical views  of  the  subject.  That  these  verbs  associate 
with  verbs  in  all  the  tenses,  is  no  proof  of  their  having 
no  peculiar  time  of  their  own.  Whatever  period  the  go- 
verning verb  assumes,  whether  present,  past,  or  future, 
the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive  always  respects  that 
period,  and  its  time  is  calculated  from  it.  Thus,  the 
time  of'  the  infinitive  may  be  before,  after,  or  the  same 
as,  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  according  as  the  thing 
signified  by  the  infinitive  is  supposed  to  be  before,  after, 
or  present  with,  the  thing  denoted  by  the  governing  verb. 
It  is,  therefore,  with  great  propriety,  that  tenses  are  as- 
signed to  verbs  of  the  infinitive  mood.  The  point  of  time 
from  which  they  are  computed,  is  of  no  consequence; 
since  present,  past,  and  future,  are  completely  applica- 
ble to  them. 

We  shall  conclude  our  observations  under  this  rule,  by 
lemarking,  that  though  it  is  often  proper  to  use  the  per- 
fect of  the  infinitive  after  the  governing  verb,  yet  tnere 
are  particular  cases,  in  which  it  would  be  better  to  give 
the  expression  a  different  form.  Thus,  instead  of  saying, 
*'I  wish  to  have  written  to  him  sooner,"  "I  then  wished 
to  have  written  to  him  sooner,"  "He  will  one  day  wish 
to  have  written  sooner;"  it  would  be  more  perspicuous 
and  forcible,  as  well  as  more  agreeable  to  the  practice  of 
good  writers,  to  say;  "1  wish  that  I  had  written  to  him 
sooner,"  "I  then  wished  that  I  had  written  to  him  soon- 
er," "He  will  one  day  wish  that  he  had  written  sooner." 
Should  the  justness  of  these  strictures  be  admitted,  there  - 
would  still  be  numerous  occasions  for  the  use  of  the  past 
infinitive;  as  we  may  perceive  by  a  few  examples.  "It 
would  ever  afterwards  have  been  a  source  of  pleasure, 
to  have  found  him  wise  and  virtuous."    "To  have  de-  ': 


Rule  14.]  SYNTAX.  16r 

ferred  his  repentance  longer,  would  have  disqualified 
him  for  repenting  at  all."  *'They  will  tlien  see,  that  to 
have  faithfully  performed  their  duty,  would  have  been 
their  greatest  consolation."* 


RULE  XIV. 

Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs 
Jiave  from  which  they  are  derived:  as,  '^I  am  weary 
with  hearing  him;''  ''^She  is  instructing  us;''  ''The 
tutor  is  admonishing  Charles." 

1.  Participles  are  sometimes  governed  by  the  article: 
for  the  present  participle,  with  the  definite  article  the 
before  it,  becomes  a  substantive,  and  must  have  the  pre- 

Eosition  o/*  after  it:  as,  "These  are  the  rules  of  fframmaiv 
y  the  observing  of  which,  you  may  avoid  mistaltes."  It 
would  not  be  proper  to  say,  "by  the  observing  which;" 
nor,  "by  observing  of  which;"  but  the  phrase,  without 
cither  article  or  preposition,  would  be  right:  as,  "by  ob- 
serving which. "/The  article  a  or  ««,  has  the  same  effect: 
as*  "This  was  a  betrayino;  of  the  trust  reposed  in  him.'' 
This  rule  arises  from  the  nature  and  idiom  of  our  Ian 
guage,  and  from  as  plain  a  principle  as  any  on  wliicli  it  is 
founded;  namely,  that  a  word  which  has  the  article  be- 
fore it,  and  the  possessive  preposition  of  after  it.  must  b<^ 
a  noun:  and,  if  a  noun,  it  ought  to  follov/  the  construc- 
tion of  a  noun,  and  not  to  have  the  regimen  of  a  verb. 
It  is  tlie  participial  termination  of  this  sort  of  words  that 
is  apt  to  deceive  us,  and  make  us  treat  them  as  if  they 
were  of  an  amphibious, species,  partly  nouns  and  partlv 
verbs.  <j 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  the  violation  of 
this  rule.  "He  was  sent  to  prepare  the  way  by  preachinji 
of  repentance;"  it  ought  to  be,  "by  he  preaching  of  re 
pentance;"  or,  "by  preaching  repentance."  "By  tlie  con 
tinual  mortifying  our  corrupt  affections;"  it  should  bo, 
"by  the  continual  mortifymg  o/","  or,  "by  continually 
mortifying  our  cori-upt  affections."  "They  laid  out  them- 
selves towards  the  advancing  and  promoting  the  good 

»  See  Key  to  theilnglish  Exercises,  ElcccnViEdiv  Rule  jfiii.  Tbe  Note 


368  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.        [Rulc  14. 

©f  it;"  'Ho'wards  adT.ancing  and  promoting  the  good." 
<'It  is  an  overvaluing  oursi^ves.  to  reduce  every  thin^  to 
the  narroNV  measure  of  our  capacities;"  "it  is  overvaluing 
ourselves,''  or,  "an  overvaluing  o/"  ourselves."  ''Keepinr^ 
of  one  day  in  seven,  "&c.:  it  ought^o  be,  ^Uhe  keeping 
c/"  one  day;"  or,  ^'keepingone  day." 

A  phrase  in  which  the  article  precedes  the  present 
participle  and  the  possessrve  preposition  follows  it,  will 
hot,  in  every  instance,  convey  the  sameineaning  as  wouxd 
be  conveyed  bv  the  participle  without  the  article  anl 
preposition,  "fie  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  the 
nearin^  of  the  philosopher,"  is  capable  of  a  diflerent 
sense  trom,  "He  expressed  tlie  pleasure  he  had  in  hearinir 
the  philosopher."  When,  therefore,  we  wisli,  for  the 
sake  of  harmony  or  variety,  to  substitute  une^f  these 
phraseologies  for  the  other,  we  should  previously  con- 
sider whether  they  are  perfectly  similar  in  the  senti 
ments  they  convey. 

2.  The  same  observations  which  have  been  made  re 
specting  the  effect  of  the  article  and  participle,  appeaj 
to  be  applicable  to  the  pronoun  and  participle,  when 
they  are  similarly  associated:  as,  "Much  depends  on  theii' 
observing  c/the  rule,  and  error  will  be  the  consequence 
of  their  neglecting  of  it;"  instead  of  '•^fheir  observing  the 
rule,  and  their  neglecting  it."\^We  shall  .perceive  thi- 
more  clearly,  if  we  substitute  a  noun  for  the  pronoun: 
as,  "Much  depends  upon  Tyro's  observing ^f  the  rule." 
&c.  But,  as  this  construction  sounds  rather  harshl}',  iv 
would,  in  general,  be  better  to  express  the  sentimeni  iu 
the  following,  or  some  other  form:  "Much  depends  on  tii^ 
rulers  being  observed;  and  error  will  be  the  consequence 
ai  its  being  ncg/ectedr'  or — "on  obser\ingthe  rule;  and — 
of  neglecting  it."  This  remark  may  be  applied  to  seve- 
ral other  modes  of  expression  to  be  found  in  this  work; 
which,  though  they  are  contended  for  as  strictly  correcij, 
are  not  always  the  most  eligible,  on  account  of  their  un- 
pleasant sound-    ^ee  pages  51,  TO,  IJa — 159. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  expressions  like  the  follow- 
ing: "/n  forming  of  his  sentences,  he  was  very  exact;*' 
**Prom  calling  of  names,  he  proceeded  to  blows."    Bu* 
this  is  incorrect  language;  for  prepositions  do  noi^  lik 
articles  and  pronouns,  concert  the  participle  itself  inU- 


I 


Hule  150  SYNTAX.  169 

the  nature  of  a  substantive;  as  we  have  shown  above  iri 
the  phrase,  "By  observing  which."  And  jet  the  participle 
with  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a  snbstahtive 
phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition 
or  verb,  expressed  or  understood:  as,  '^By  promising 
much,  and  performing  hut  little,  we  become  despicable.'" 
•^•He  studied  to  avoid  expressing  himself  too  severely'^ 

3.  As  the  perfect  participle  xund  the  imperfect  ten<e  nvf 
■sometimes  different  in  their  form,  care  must  be  tiikeu 
that  they  be  not  indiscriminately  used.  It  is  frequentlv 
said,  *^He  begun,"  for  *^he  began;"  **He  run,"  for  *'hV 
ran;"  "He  drunk,"  for  "he  drank;"  the  participle  beino- 
here  used  instead  ©f  the  imperfect  tense:  and  miic)i 
more  frequently  the  imperfect  tense  instead  of  the  par- 
ticiple^Vks,  "I  had  wrote,"  for  "I  had  written;"  "I  was 
chose," ' for  *^^  was  chosen;"  "I  have  eat,"  for  ''I  hav</. 
eaten."  "His  words  were  interwove  with  sighs;"  ''were 
interwoven.^'^  "He  would  have  spoke;"  '^spoken.'''  "He 
hath  bore  witness  to  his  faithful  servants;"  ^'bomr.''-  "Bv 
^his  means  he  over-run  his  guide;"  '^over-ran.'^'  "Tho 
sun  has  rose;"  'hisen.^^  "His  constitution  has  beei.' 
greatly  shook,  but  his  mind  is  too  strong  to  be  shook 
by  such  causes;"  ^'^shakc.n^''  in  both  places.  "They  wert- 
verses  wrote  on  glass;"  ^^?vrittcn,^^  ^^Philosoph^rs  havf 
-often  mistook  the  source  of  true  happiness:"  i-  ought  tf: 
be  ^'•mistakenJ'^ 

'^The  pai'ticiple  ending  in  ed  is  often  improperly  con 
tracted  by  chana-ing  ed  into  t;   as,  "In  good  behaviour. 
lie  is  not  s?^r;3«5^ "by  any  pupil  of  the  school."  ''She  was 
much  disfrest."    They  ought  to  be  ^'surpassrd^'*  "if/> 
-tj-essed,^^^ 


RULE  XV. 

■  Adverbs,  though  they  have  no  governmerit  of  ca;;t% 
tense,  &c.  require  an  appropriate  situation  in  the  sen- 
tence, viz.  for  the  most  part,  before  adjectives,  aftt5i 
verbs  active  or  neuter,  and  frequently  between  thf^ 
auxiliary  and  the  verb:  as,  **He  made  a  very  sensibte 
discourse;  he  spoke  unaffectedly  and  forcibly,  and  ivm 
qttenUvely  heard  by  the  whole  assembly.'' 
P 


170  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.        [Rulc  15. 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  positions  of  adverbs 
maj  sei*ve  to  illustrate  the  rule.  "He  must  not  expect 
to  find  study  agreeable  always;"  ^'always  agreeable." 
"We  always  find  them  ready  when  we  want  them;'* 
"we  find  them  always  ready,"  &:c.  "Dissertations  on 
the  prophecies  which  have  remarkably  been  fulfilled:" 
"which  have  been  remarkably^  "Instead  of  looking 
contemptuously  down  on  the  crooked  in  mind  or  in  body,  i 
■we  shoukHook  up  thankfully  to  God,  who  hath  made  us 
better;"  "instead  of  looking  down  contemptuously^  &c.  | 
we  should  thankfully  look  up,''^  &c.  "If  thou  art  b'lesse?] 
naturally  with  a  good  memory,  continually  exercise  it;** 
^-naturally  blessed,'^  &c.  "exercise  it  continually.^'' 

Sometimes  the  adveib  is  placed  with  propriety  before 
tlie  verb,  or  at  some  distance  after  it;  sometimes  be- 
tween the  tv/o  auxiliaries;  and  sometimes  after  them 
both;  as  in  the  following  examples.  "Vice  always  creeps 
by  degrees,  and  insensibly  twines  around  us  those  con- 
cealed fetters,  by  wliich  we  are  at  last  completely 
bound."  "He  encouraged  the  English  Barons  to  carry 
their  opposition  farther.'''  "They  compelled  him  to  de- 
clare that  he  would  abjure  the  realm /or  6r/?r:"' instead 
of,  "to  carry  farther  their  opposition;"  and  "to  abjure 
for  ever  the  realm."  "He  ha.s  gener-ally  been  reckoned 
an  honest  man."  "The  book  may  always  be  had  at  sucli 
a  place;"  in  preference  to  "has  been  generally;'-  and 
"may  be  always."  "These  rules  will  be  clearly  under 
^  stood,  after  they  have  been  diligently  studied,"  are  pre 
ferable  to,  "These  rules  will  clearly  be  understood,  aft« 
ihey  have  diligently  been  studied." 

From  the  preceding  remarks  and  examples,  it  appear- 
that  no  exact  and  determinate  rule  can  be  given  for  tli^' 
placing  of  adverbs,  onall  occasions.  The  general  ruh' 
may  be  of  considerable  use;  but  the  easy  flow  and  per- 
spicuity of  tlie  phrase,  arC'^he  things  which  ought  to  be 
chiefly  regarded. 

The  adverb  there  is  often  used  as  an  expletive,  or  as: 
a  word  that  adds  nothing  to  the  sense;  in  wdiich  case  it 
precedes  the  verb  and  the  nominative  noun:  as,  "There 
is  a  person  at  the  door;"  "There  are  some  thieves  in 
the  house;"  which  would  be  as  well,  or  better,  expressed 
W  saying,  "A  person  is  at  the  door:'^  "Some  thieve^ 


Hule  1S»}  SYNTAX.  171 

are  in  the  house."  Sometimes,  it  is  made  use  of  togive 
a  small  degree  of  emphasis  to  the  sentence:  as,  ^'Tnere 
was  a  man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  was  John." 
When  it  is  applied  in  its  strict  sense,  it  principally  fol- 
lows the  verb  and  the  nominative  case:  as,  "The  man 
stands  //lere." 

1.  The  adverb  never  generally  precedes  the  verb:  as, 
"I  never  was  there;"  "He  never  comes  at  a  proper  time." 
When  an  auxiliary  is  used,  it  is  placed  indift'erently, 
either  before  or  after  this  adverb:  as,  "He  was  never  seen 
(or  never  was  seen)  to  laugh  from  that  time."' 

Never  seems  to  be  improperly  used  in  the  following' 
passages.  "Ask  nre-  never  so  much  dowry  and  gift."  "It 
I  make  my  hands  never  so  clean."  "Charm  he  never  so 
wisely."  The  word  "ever"  would  be  more  suitiible  to  the 
sense. 

2.  In  imitation  of  the  French  idiom,  the  adverb  of 
place  where,  is  often  used  instead  of  the  pronoun  relative 
and  a  preposition.  "They  framed  a  protestation,  where 
they  repeated  all  their  former  claims^"  i.  e.  "z?2  which 
they  repeated."  "The  king  was  still  determined  to  run 
forwards,  in  the  same  course  zvhere  he  was  already,  by 
his  precipitate  career,  too  fatally  advanced;*'  i.  e.  "m 
which  he  was."  But  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  this 
mode  of  expression. 

^-  The  adverbs  hence,  thence,  and  ?6'/ience,  imply  a  prepo- 
sition; for  they  signify,  "from  this  place,  from  that  place^ 
from  what  place.  2i- It  seems,  thereiore,  strictly  speakingj 
to  be  improper  to  join  a  preposition  with  them,  because 

"it  is  superfluous:  as.  "This  is  the  leviathan,  from  whence 
the  wits  of  our  a^e  are  said  to  borrow  their  weapons;" 
"An  ancient  author  prophesies  from  hence."  But  the 
origin  of  these  words  is  little  attended  to,  and  the  pre- 

"  position //W7Z,  so  often  used  in  construction  with  them, 
that  the  omission  of  it,  in  many  cases,  would  seem  stiff, 
and  be  disagreeable. 

**-  The  adverbs  here,  there,  where,  are  often  improperly 
applied  to  verbs  signifying  motion,  instead  of  the  adverbs 
hither,  thither,  whither:  as,  "He  came  here  hastily;" 
"They  rode  there  with  speed."  They  should  be,  "He 
came  hither;^^  "They  rode  thither,^''  &c.  ci^- 

3.  We  have  some  examples  of  adverbs  being  used  for 


IT^  .  E^-^GLISH  GRAMiMAR.  [RuIftS  I§,  If^ 

substantives:  "In  1687,  he  erected  it  into  a  community  of 
regulars,  since  when,  it  has  be^un  to  increase  in  those 
countries  as  a  religious  order;"  i.  e.  '*since  which  time*^l>< 
^^h.  little  while  and  I  shall  not  see  you;"  i.  e.  '-a  short 
iime.''^  ''It  is  v/orth  their  while;"  i.  e."it  deserves  their 
time  and  pains."  But  this  use  of  the  word  rather  suits- 
ramiliar  than  grave  style.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
phrase,  "To  do  a  thing  awjhow^^^  i.  e.  "in  any  manner;" 
or,  '^somdioiv;^^  i.  e.  "'in  some  manner,"  "Somehow,, 
worthy  as  these  people  are,  they  arc  under  the  influence/ 
of' prejudice." 

RULE  XVL 

Two  negatives,  in  English,  destroy  one  another^ 
or  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative:  as,  '^Nor  did  they 
7iot  perceive  him;"  that  is  'Hhey  did  perceive  him.'^ 
''His  language,  though  inelegant,  is  not  ungramma- 
tkah,^^  that  is,  ''it  is  grammatical/' 

It  is  better  to  express  an  affirmation,  by  a  regular 
affirmative,  than  by  two  separate  negatives,  as  in  the 
former  sentence:  but  when  one  of  the  negatives  is  joined 
to  another  word,  as  in  the  latter  sentence,  the  two  nega^ 
tives  form  a  pleasing  and  delicate  variety  of  expression. 

Some  writers  have  improperly  employed  two  negatives 
instead  of  one;  as  in  the  following  instances:  "I  never 
did  repent  of  doing  good,  nor  shall  not  now;"  ''nor  shall 
I  now.^^  "Never  no  imitator  grew  up  to  his  author;" 
-mever  did  any^"^  &c.  "I  cannot  by  no  means  allow  him*, 
what  his  argument  must  prove;"  'fl  cannot  by  an"^ 
means,"  &c.  or,  "I  can  by  no  means ^^  '*Nor  let  no  com- 
forter approach  me;"  "nor  let  any  comforter,"  &c.  "Nor 
irs  danger  ever  appreliended  in  such  a  government,  na 
more  than  we  commonly  apprehend  danger  from  thunder 
or  earthquakes:"  it  should  be,  ''any  morey  "Ariosto,. 
Tasso,  Galileo,  no  more  than  Raphael,  were  not  born  in 
republics."  "Neither  Ariosto,  Tasso,  nor  Galileo,  any 
more  than  Raphael,  was  born  in  a  republic." 

RULE  XVII. 
Prepositians  govern  the  abjective  case:  as,  "I  have 


Rule  17»]  SYNTAX*  173 

heard  a  good  character  of  her;^^  '^From  him  that  is 
needy  turn  not  away;"  **A  word  to  the  wise  is  suffi- 
cient/or them;^^  '^We  may  be  good  and  happy  ?vith- 
mtt  riches.''^ 

The  following  are  examples  of  tlio  nominative  case 
being  used  instead  of  the  objective.  "Who  servest  thou 
under?"  "Who  do  you  speak  to?"  ">¥<)  are  still  much 
at  a  loss  who  civil  power  belongs  to:"  "Who  dost  thou 
ask  for?"  "Associate  not  with  those  who  none  can  speak 
well  of."  In  all  these  places  it  ought  to  be  ^'whomP 
See  Note  1. 

"•^he  prepositions  to  and  for  are  often  understood, 
chiefly  before  th||^ronouns:  as,  '*Give  me  the  book;" 
"Get  me  some  paper;"  that  is,  Ho  me;  for  nie."  "Who  is 
me;"  i.  e.  "^o  me."  '*He  was  banisheu  England;"  i.  e. 
^from  England."--^ 

1.  The  preposition  is  often  separated  from  the  relative 
which  it  governs:  as,  "Whom  wilt  thou  give  it  to?"  in- 
stead of,  "7l>  whom  wilt  thou  give  it?"  "He  is  an  author 
whom  I  am  much  delighted  witli;"  ''The  world  is  too 
polite  to  shock  authors  with  a  truth,  wliich  generally  their 
booksellers  are  the  first  that  inform  them  of."  This  is 
an  idiom  to  which  our  language  is  strongly  inclined;  it 
prevails  in  common  conversation,  and  suits  very  well 
with  the  familiar  style  in  writing:  but  the  placing  of  the 
preposition  before  the  relative,  is  more  graceful,  as  well 
as  more  perspicuous,  and  agrees  much  better  witli  the 

^  solemn  and  elevated  style. 

2.  Some  v;riters  separate  the  preposition  from  its  noun, 
'n  order  ic  ronuect  ditterent  prepositions  with  the  same 
noun:  as,  "To  suppose  the  zodiac  and  planets  to  be  efli- 
cient  of,  and  antecedent  to,  themselves."    This,  whether 

^in  the  familiar  or  the  solemn  style,  is  alwa3^s  inelegant, 
and  should  generally  be  avoided.  In  forms  of  law,  and 
the  like,  where  fulness  and  exactness  of  expression 
must  take  place  of  every  other  consideration,  it  may  be 
admitted. 

3.  Different  relations,  and  diiferent  senses,  must  be 
expressed  by  different  prepositions,  though  in  conjunction. 
^"ith  the  same  verb  or  adjective.     Thus    we   say,  "to 

uverse  ivith  a  person,  upon  a  subject,  in  a  house,"  ^Cj 
P  ^. 


if 4  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [ti^ule  17.' 

We  also  say,  "We  are  disappointed  of  a  thing,"  when 
we  cannot  get  it,  "and  disappointed  in  it,"  when  we  have  ^ 
it,  and  find  it  does  not  answer  our  expectations.  •  But 
two  different  prepositions  must  be  improper  in  the  Same 
construction,  and  in  the  same  sentence:  as,  "The  com- 
bat between  thirty  French  as^ainst  twenty  Endish." 

In  some  cases,  it  is  difficult  to  say,  to  which  of  two- 
prepositions  the  preference  is  to  be  given,  as  both  arc 
used  promiscuously,  and  custom  has  not  decided  in  fa- 
vour of  either  of  them.  We  say,  "Expert  at,"  and  "expert 
in  a  thing."  "Expert  at  finding  a  remedy  for  his  mis- 
takes;" ''Expert  m  deception." 

When  prepositions  are  subjoined^  to  nouns,  they  are 
generally  the  same  that  are  subjoineli  to  the  verbs  from 
which  the  nouns  are  derived:  as,  "A  compliance  wxth^"* 
"to  comply  loithf''  "A  disposition  to  tyranny,"  "disposed^ 
to  tyrannize." 

4.  As  an  accurate  and  appropriate  use  of  the  prepo- 
sition is  of  great  importance,  we  shall  select  a  consider- 
able number  of  examples  of  impropriety,  in  the  applica- 
tion of  this  part  of  speech.  ,  ^ 

1st,  With  respect  to  the  preposition  of, — "He  is  resoh 
ed  of  going  to  the  Persian  court;"  "on  going,"  &c.  "He 
was  totally  dependent  of  the  Papal  crown;"  "o?2  the  Pa- 
pal," &c.  "To  call  of  a  person,"  and  "to  wait  of  him;" 
"on  a  person,"  &c.  "He  was  eager  of  recommending  it  * 
to  his  fellow  citizens;"  "in  recommending,"  &c.  Of  is  * 
sometimes  omitted,  and  sometimes  inserted,  after  worthyr^ 
as,  "It  is  worthy  observation,"  or,  "of  observation." 
But  it  would  have  been  better  omitted  in  the  following 
sentences.  "The  emulation,  who  should  serve  their 
country  best,  no  longer  subsists  among  them,  but  of  who 
should  obtain  the  most  lucrative  command."  "The  rain 
Iiath  been  falling  of  dc  lon^  time;"  "falling  a  long  time." 
"It  is  situation  chiefly  which  decides  of  the  fortune  and 
characters  of  men;"  "decides  the  fortune,"  or,  "co/ieer/i- 
in^  the  fortune."  "He  found  the  greatest  difficulty  of 
writing;"  "in  writing."  "It  might  have  given  me  a 
greater  taste  of  its  anticjuities."  A  taste  o/a  thing  im- 
plies actual  enjoyment  ot  it;  but  a  taste/or  it,  implies  only 
a  capacity  for  enjoyment.  "This  had  a  mucn  greater 
abi^are  of  inciting  him,  than  any  regard  after  his  father'^ 


Rule  17.]  SYNTAX.  17B 

commands;"  "share  in  inciting,"  and  "regard  to  his  fa- 
ther's," &c. 

2d,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  to  and  for. — ^"You 
have  bestowed  your  favours  to  the  most  deserving  per- 
sons;" '^upon  the  most  deserving,"  &c.  **He  accused 
the  ministers  for  betraying  the  Dutch;"  ^'of  having  be- 
trayed." '*His  abhorrence  to  that  superstitious  figure;" 
"o/that,"  &c.  "A  great  change  to  the  better;"  ''for  the 
better."  "Your  prejudice  to  my  cause;"  '^against.^^  "The 
English  were  very  different  people  then  to  what  they  are 
at  present;"  "from  what,",&G.  "In  compliance  to  the 
declaration;"  "ivithf^^  &c.  "It  is  more  than  they  thought 
tor;"  **thought  o/."  '*There  is  no  need  for  it;"  "of  it." 
For  is  superfluous  in  the  phrase,  "More  than  he  knows 
for.^^  *'No  discouragement  for  the  authors  to  proceed;" 
'Ho  the  authors,"  &:c.  "It  Was  perfectly  in  compliance 
to  some  persons;"  "withy  "The  wisest  princes  need 
not  think  it  any  diminution  to  their  greatness,  or  dero- 
gation to  their  sufficiency,  to  rely  upon  counsel;"  "dimi- 
nution o/","  and  "derogation  yVom." 

Sd,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  tvith  and  upon.^-" 
"Reconciling  himself  with  the  king."  "Those  things 
which  have  the  greatest  resemblance  with  each  other^ 
frequently  differ  3ie  most."  "That  such  rejection  should 
be  consonant  \#ith  our  common  nature."  "Conformable 
with,"  &c.  '<The  history  of  Peter  is  agreeable  with  the 
sacred  texts."  In  all  the  above  instances,  it  should  be, 
"/o,"  instead  of  "ivitk.'^'^  "It  is  a  use  that  perhaps  I 
should  not  have  thought  on;"  "thought  o/*."  "A  greater 
quantity  may  be  taken  from  the  heap,  \vithout  making 
any  sensible  alteration  upon  it;"  "in  it."  "Intrusted  to 
persons  on  whom  the  parliament  could  confide;"  "in 
whom."  "He  was  made  much  on  at  Argos;"  "much  o/*." 
"If  policy  can  prevail  upon  force;"  "over  force."  "1  do 
likewise  dissent  with  the  examiner;"  "fromJ*^ 

4th,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  in^  from,  &c. — 
^They  should  bs  informed  in  some  parts  of  his  charac- 
ter;" "about ^^^  or,  " concerning. '''*  "Upon  such  occasions 
as  fell  into  their  cognizance;"  * 'under,  ^^  ^That  variety 
of  factions  into  which  we  are  still  engaged;"  "in  v^hich." 
"To  restore  myself  into  the  favour;"  "to  the  favour.*^ 
"'^CguUi  he  have  profited  from  repeated  experieBces;" 


It 6  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rulc  18, 

"61/.'*  IVoni  seems  to  be  superfluous  after  forbear:  as, 
"He  could  not  forbear  from  appointing  the  pope,"  &e. 
'*A  strict  observ'^ance  after  times  and  fashions;"  "of 
times*"  "The  character  which  we  may  now  value  our- 
selves by  drawing;"  '•'upon  drawing."  * 'Neither  of  them 
shall  make  me  swerve  out  of  the  path;"  '•from  the  path.'' 
"Ye  blind  guides,  which  strain  at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a 
camel;"  it  ought  to  be,  "which  strain  out  a  gnat,  or  take 
a  gnat  out  of  the  liquor  by  straining  it."  The  impro- 
priety of  the  preposition  has  wholly  destroyed  the  mean- 
ing of  the  phrase. 

-^  The  preposition  among  generally  implies  a  number  of 
things.  It  cannot  be  properly  used  in  conjunction  with 
the  word  every,  which  is  in  the  singular  number:  as, 
"Which  is  found  among  every  species  of  liberty;"  "The 
opinion  seems  to  gain  ground  among  every  body."*— ^ 

5.  The  preposition  to  is  made  use  of  before  nouns  of 
place,  when  tney  follow  verbs  and  participles  of  motion: 
as,  "I  went  to  London;"  "I  am  going  to  town."  But  the 
preposition  at  is  generally  used  after  the  neuter  verb  to 
he:  as,  "I  have  been  at  London;"  * 'I  was  at  the  place 
appointed;"  "I  shall  be  at  Paris."-,^We  likewise  say: 
"He  touched,  arrived  at  any  place."  Tha  preposition  in 
is  set  before  countries,  cities,  and  lar^e  towns:  as,  "He 
lives  in  France,  in  London,  or  in  Birmingham."  But 
before  villages,  single  houses,  and  cities  which  are  in 
distant  countries,  at  is  used;  as,  ''He  lives  at  Hackney;" 
•"He  resides  at  Montpelier." 

It  is  a  matter  of  indifference  with  respect  to  the  pro- 
noun one  another,  whether  the  preposition  of  be  placed 
between  the  two  parts  of  it,  or  bejfore  them  both.  We 
may  say,  "They  were  jealous  of  one  another;"  or,  "They 
were  jealous  one  of  another;"  but  perhaps  the  former  \» 
better. 

Participles  are  frequently  used  as  prepositions:  as, 
excepting,  respecting,  touching,  concerning,  according. 
**They  were  all  in  fault  except  or  excepting  him." 

RULE  XVIII. 

.Cpniunetions  conntet  the  same  moods  and  tenses 
»£  verbs,  and  case§  of  nouns  and  pronouns :  as,  <*Can* 


Kule  tS.]  SYNTAX.  377 

dour  is  to  be  approved  and  practised:^^  '*If  thou  sin- 
cerely desires  and  earnestly  pursue  virtue,  she  will 
assuredly  6e/oz//ir?  by  thee,  and  prove  a  rich  reward;'' 
*^*The  master  taught  her  and  me  to  write;"  '^He  and 
sAe  were  schoolfellows.''* 

A  few  examples  of  inaccuracy  respecting  this  rule 
may  further  display  its  utility.  "If  he  prefer  a  virtuous 
life,  and  is  sincere  in  his  professions,  he  will  sue ce^d;"^ 
"if  he  prefers.'''^  "To  deride  the  miseries  of  the  unhappy, 
is  inhuman;  and  wanting  compassion  towards  them,  ia 
upchristian;-'  "and  to  want  compassion."  "The  parlia- 
ment addressed  the  king,  and  has  been  prorogued  the 
rsame  day;"  "and  was  prorogued."  "His  wealth  and  hinv 
bid  adieu  to  each  other;"  '^and  /le."  "He  entreated  us, 
my  comrade  and  I,  to  live  harmoniously;"  "comrade  and 
me."  "My  sister  and  her  were  on  good  terms;"  "and 
she,'^'^  <*We  often  overlook  the  blessings  which  are  in 
our  possession,  and  are  searching  after  those  which  are 
out  of  our  reach:"  it  ought  to  be,  "and  search  after." 

1 .  Conjunctions  are,  indeed,  frequently  made  to  connect 
difterent  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs:  but  in  these  instances 
the  nominative  must  generally,  if  not  always,  be  repeated, 
which  is  not  necessary,  though  it  may  be  done,  under  the 
construction  to  which  the  rule  refers.  We  may  say,  "He . 
lives  temperately,  cf?zf/  he  should  live  temperately;"  '*He 
Tnay  return,  but  he  unll  not  cantinue^^^  "She  ivas  proud^ 
though  she  is  now  humble:"  but  it  is  obvious,  that  in  such 
C;^se9,  the  nominative  ought  to  be  repeated;  and  that,  by 
this  means,  the  latter  members  of  these  sentences  are  ren- 
dered not  so  strictly  dependent  on  the  preceding,  as  those 
are  which  come  under  the  rule.  When,  in  the  progress  of 
a  sentence,  we  pass  from  the  affirmative  to  the  negative 
form,  or  from  the  negative  to  the  affirmative,  the  subject 
or  nominative  is  always  resumed:  as,  "He  is  rich,  but  he 
is  not  respectable."  "He  is  not  rich,  but  he  is  respect- 
able." There  appears  to  be,  in  general,  equal  reason  for 
repeating  the  nominative,  and  resuming  the  subject,  when 
the  course  of  the  sentence  is  diverted  by  a  change  of  the 
mood  or  tense.    The  following  sentences  may  therefore 

*  This  rule  refers  only  to  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  have  tbeaamie  bearing 
Vr  relation,  with  regard  to  other  parts  of  the  sentence. 


ITS  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (Tlule   J9« 

be  improved.  "Anger  glances  into  the  breast  of  a  wise 
man,  but  will  rest  only  in  the  bosom  of  fools;"  "but  rests 
only;"  or,  "but  it  will  rest  only."  "Virtue  is  praised  by 
many,  and  would  be  desired  also,  if  her  worth  were 
really  known;"  "and  she  would."  ''The  world  begins- 
to  recede,  and  will  soon  disappear;"  "and  *7  will."  See 
the  Octavo  Grammar,  Rule  xviii. 


RULE  XIX. 

Some  conjunctions  require  the  indicative,  some  iitc 
subjunctive  mood,  after  them.  It  is  a  general  rule, 
that  when  something  contingent  or  doubtful  is  im- 
plied, the  subjunctive  ought  to~be  used:  as,  ''If  I  were 
to  write,  he  would  not  regard  it;"  ''He  will  not  be 
pardoned,  u?ikss  he  repent.'' 

Conjunctions  that  are  of  a  positive  and  absolute 
nature  require  the  indicative  mood.  "«/?-  virtue  ad- 
vances, so  vice  recedes:''  "He  is  healthy,  because  he  is 
temperate." 

The  conjunctions,  if,  though ^  unless,  except^  whether, 
&c.  generally  require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them: 
as,  "//*  thou  6e  afflicted,  repine  not;"  ^^ Though  he  slay 
me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him:"  "He  cannot  be  clean,  wn- 
less  he  tvctsh  himself;"  "No  power,  except  it  were  given 
fi'om  above;"  "  Whether  it  wei^e  I  or  they,  so  w«  preach." 
But  even  these  conjunctions,  when  the  sentence  does 
not  imply  doubt,  admit  of  the  indicative:  as,  '^'^hougk 
he  is  poor,  he  is  contented." — See  subjunctive  mood,  p. 
68,  and  pages  183,  184. 

The  following  example  may,  in  some  measure,  serve  to 
illustrate  the  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  the 
indicative  moods.  "  Though  he  ivere  dhmelj  inspired, and 
spoke  therefore  as  the  oracles  of  Godvwith  supreme  autho- 
rity; though  he  were  endued  with  supernatural  powers, 
and  couid,  therefore,  have  confirmed  the  truth  of  what  he 
uttered,  by  miracles;  yet,  in  compliance  with  the  way  in 
which  human  nature  and  reasonable  creatures  are  usually 
wrought  upon,  he  reasoned."  That  our  Saviour  was  di- 
vinely inspired,  and  endued  with  supernatural  powers,  ai  *" 


^  flule  19.]  SYNTA-X.  ITS 

positions  that  are  here  taken  for  granted,  as  not  admitting 
he  least  doubt;  they  would  therefore  have  been  better 
expressed  in  i}\e  indicative  mood:  ''Though  he  was  di- 
inely  inspired;  though  he  was  endued  with  supernatural 
powers."  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  like  improper 
manner  in  the  following  examnje:  '^Though  he  were  a  son, 
vet  learned  he  obedience,  by  the  things  which  he  suffei-- 
But,  in  a  similar  passage,  the  indicative,  with  great 
,,riety,  is  employed  to  the  Sj^me  purpose;  ^'Though  he 
vxis  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he  became  poor.*' 

1.  Lest,  and  fhat,  annexed  to  a  command  preceding, 
necessarily  require  the  subjunctive  mood:  as,  "Love  not 
sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty;"  ••Reprove  not  a  scorn- 
en  lest  he  hate  tliee;"  *'Take  heed  tliat  thou  speak  not  to 
Jacob." 

If  with  but  following  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  re- 
^juires  the  subjunctive  mood:  as,  '*If\\tdo  hut  touch  the 
hills,  they  sliall  smoke;"  ''IfXxe  be  but  discreet,  lie  will 
succeed."  But  the  indicative  ou^ht  to  be  used,  on  this 
occasion,  v>hen  future  time  is  not  signified:  as,  "JJT,  in  this 
expression,  he  does  but  jest,  no  offence  should  be  taken;" 
^*]f  she  is  but  sincere,  I  am  happy."  The  same  distinc- 
tion applies  to  the  following  forms  of  expression:  "If  he 
do  submit,  it  will  be  from  necessity;"  '^Though  he  does 
submit,  l;e  is  not  convinced;"  ^-If  thou  do  not  reward  this 
service,  he  will  be  discouraged;"  "If  thou  dost  heartily 
forgive  him,  endeavour  to  forget  the  ofience." 

2.  In  the  following  instances,  the  conjunction  that,  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  seems  to  be  improperly  accompa- 
nied with  the  subju active  mood.  "So  much  slie  dreaded 
his  tyranny,  thcm^j/^o^  fate  of  her  friend  she  dare  not  la- 
ment." ''He  reasoned  so  artfully  that  his  friends  would 
listen,  and  think  \Jhat~\  he  ?/'ere'not  wrong." 

3.  The  same  conjunction  governing  both  the  indicative 
and  the  subjunctive  moods,  in  the  same  sentence,  and  in 
the  same  circumstances,  seems  to  be  a  great  impropriety: 
as  in  these  instances.  '•''If  there  be  but  one  body  of  le-- 
gislators,  it  is  no  better  than  a  tyranny;  lY"  there  are  only 
two,  there  will  want  a  casting  voice."  "^  a  man  have  a 
hundred  sheep,  and  one  of  them  is  gone  astray,"  &c. 

4.  Almost  all  the  irregularities,  in  the  construction  of 
a^y  language,  have  arisen  from  tiie  ellipsis  of  some  worda. 


ISO  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK.  (KxHt  1% 

which  were  originally  inserted  in  the  sentence,  and  made 
it  regular;  and  it  is  probable,  that  this  has  generally  been  , 
the  case  with  respect  to  the  conjunctive  form  of  words, 
now  in  use;  which  will  appear  from  the  following  exam- 
ples: "We  shall  overtake  him  though  he  rwn;"  that  is, 
^'though  he  should  run;"  ^'Unless  he  act  prudently,  he 
Avill  not  accomplish  his  purpose;"  that  is,<'unlesshe  *'^«// 
act  prudently."  "If  he  succeed  and  obtain  his  end,  he  wi 
not  be  the  happier  for  it;"  tliat  is,  ^^if  he  should  succe* 
and  should  obtain  his  end."  These  remarks  and  example- 
are  designed  to  show  the  original  of  many  of  our  preseni 
conjunctive  forms  of  expression;  and  to  enable  the  stu- 
dent to  examine  the  propriety  of  using  them,  by  tracing 
the  words  in  question  to  their  proper  origin  and  ancient 
connexions.  But  it  is  necessary  to  be  more  particular  on 
this  subject,  and  therefore  we  shall  add  a  few  observations 
respecting  it. 

That  part  of  the  verb  which  grammarians  call  the  pre- 
sent tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  has  a  future  signinca- 
tion.     This  is  effected  by  varying  the  terminations  of  the  - 
second  and  third  person  singular  of  the  indicative;  as  will    - 
be  evident  from  the  fjllo  wing  examples:  "If  thoujrjrosper, 
thou  shouldst  be  thankful;"  "Unless  he  study  more  close- 
ly, he  will  never  be  learned."    Some  writers  however 
would  express  these  sditiments  \.'ithout  those  variations; 
"If  thou  prosperest,-^  ike.  "Unless  he  studies,^^  &c.:  and  J 
as  there  is  great  diversity  of  practice  in  this  point,  it  is   ^ 

ner  to  offer  the  learners  a  tew  remarks,  to  assist  them  i 
Lstinguishing  the  right  application  cf  these  different 
forms  of  expression.    It  may  be  considered  as  a  rule,  thai 
the  changes  of  termination  are  necessaijifHvhen  these  two 
circumstances  concur:  1st,  When  the  subject  is  of  a  du- 
bious and  contingent  nature;  and  !2d,  When  the  verb  ha 
a  reference  to  future  time.     In  the  following  sentence^ 
both  these  circumstances  will  be  found  to  unite:  ^^If  the; 
injure  another,  thou  v/ilt  hurt  thyself;"  "He  has  a  ha: . 
heart;  and  if  he  continue  impenitent,  he  must  suffei: 
^•He.will  maintain  his  principles,  though  he  lose  his  c. 
^ate$"  ''Whether  he  succeed ov  not,  his  intention  islau'' 
able;"  "If  he  he  not  prosperous,  he  will  not  repine:" 
^'If  a  man  smite  his  servant,  and  he  <^ie,"  &c.  Exod.  xx 
£0.    In  ail  these  examples,  the  things  signified  by  ti 


Rule  19.]  SYNTAX.  181 

verbs  are  uncertain,  and  refer  to  future  time.  But  id  the 
instances  which  follow,  future  time  is  not  referred  to;  and 
therefore  a  different  construction  takes  place;  "If  thou 
livest  virtuously,  thou  art  happy;"  ''Unless  he  means 
what  he  says,  he  is  doublv  faitniess;"  "If  he  allows  the 
excellence  of  virtue,  he  Aoes  not  regard  her  precepts';" 
''Though  he  seerns  to  be  simple  and  artless,  he  has  de- 
ceived us;"  "Whether  virtue  is  better  than  rank  or 
wealth,  admits  not  of  any  dispute;"  "If  thou  believest  witii 
all  thy  heart,  thou  mayst,"  &c.  ^cts  viii.  37. — There  are 
many  sentences,  introduced  by  conjunctions,  in  which 
neitlier  contingency  nor  futurity  is  denoted:  as,  "Thougli 
he  excels  her  in  knowledge,  she  far  exceeds  him  in  vir- 
tue." "I  have  no  doubt  of  nis  principles:  but  if  he  believers 
the  truths  of  religion,  he  does  not  act  according  to  them." 
*^hat  both  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futu- 
rity are  necessary,  as  tests  of  the  propriety  of  altering 
tlie  terminations,  will  be  evident,  by  inspecting  the  fol- 
lowing examples;  which  show  that  there  are  instances  in 
which  neither  of  the  circumstances  alone  implies  the 
other.  In  the  three  examples  following,  contingency  is 
denoted,  but  not  futurity.  "If  he  thinks  as  he  speaks, 
he  may  safely  be  trusted."  "If  he  is  now  disposed  to  ity 
I  will  perform  the  operation."  "He  acts  uprightly,  unless 
he  deceives  me."  In  the  following' sentences,  futurity  i» 
signified,  but  not  contingency.  "As  soon  as  the  sun  sets^ 
it  will  be  cooler."  "As  the  autumn  advances,  these  birds 
will  gradually  emigrate,"-*^ 

It  appears,  from  the  tenor  of  the  examples  adduced, 
that  the  rules  above  mentioned  may  be  extended  to  assert, 
that  in  cases  wherein  contingency  and  futurity  do  not  con- 
cur, it  is  not  proper  to  turn  the  verb  from  its  signification 
of  present  lime,  nor  to  vary  its  form  or  termination. 
The  verb  would  then  be  in  the  indicative  mood,  whatever 
conjunctions  might  attend  it. — If  these  rules,  which  seem 
to  tovm.  the  true  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and 
the  indicative  moods  in  this  tense,  were  adopted  and, 
eslablished  in  practice,  we  should  have,  on  this  point,  a 
principle  of  decision  simple  and  precise,  and  readily  ap- 

i^licitble  to  every  case  that  might  occur- — It  will,  doubt- 
ess,  sometimes  happen,  that,  on  this  occasion,  as  well  as 
on  many  other  occasions,  a  strict  adherence  to  grammati- 


18^  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [Rule  1^. 

cal  rules,  would  render  the  language  stiff  and  formal:  but 
when  case'j  of  this  sort  occur,  it  is  better  to  give  the  ex- 
pression a  different  turn,  than  to  violate  erammar  for  the 
sake  of  ease,  or  even  of  elegance.    See  Rule  14.  Note  2. 

5.  On  the  form  of  the  auxiliaries  in  the  compound 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  it  seems  proper  to  make  a 
few  observations.  Some  writers  express  tnemselves  in  the 
perfect  tense  as  follows:  ^<If  thou  have  determined,  we 
must  submit:"  "Unless  he  have  consented,  the  writino- 
will  be  void:"  but  we  believe  that  few  authors  of  critical 
sagacity  write  in  this  manner.  The  proper  form  seems  to 
be,  "If  thou  hast  determined;  unless  he  A«s  consented," 
&e.  conformably  to  what  we  generally  meet  with  in  the 
Bible:  *'I  have  surnamed  thee,  though  thou  hast  not 
known  me."  Isaiah  xlv.  4,  5.  "What  is  the  hope  of  the 
liypocrite,  though  he  hath  gained,"  &c.  Job  xxvii.  8.  See 
also  ^Scts  xxviii.  4, 

6.  In  the  pluperfect  and  future  tenses,  we  sometimes 
meet  with  such  expressions  as  these;  "If  thou  A«r?  ap- 
plied thyself  diligently,  thou  wouldst  have  reaped  the 
advantage;"  "Unless  thou  shall  speak  the  whole  truth,  we 
cannot  determine;"  "If  thou  z^jiV/ undertake  the  business, 
there  is  little  doubt  of  success."  This  mode  of  express- 
ing the  auxiliaries  does  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by 
the  general  practice  o£  correct  writers.  They  should  be 
hadst,  shalf,  and  wilt:  and  we  find  them  used  in  this  form, 
in  the  sacred  Scriptures. 

"If  thou  hadst  known,"  kc.Luke  xix.  47.  "If  thou 
hadst  been  here,"  &c.  John  xi.  21.  "If  thou  ivilt,  thou 
canst  make  me  clean,"  Matt,  viii.  2.  See  also,  2  Sam.  iu 
27.  Matt,  xvii.  4. 

7.  The  second  perso^singular  of  the  imperfect  tense 
in  the  subjunctive  mood^.also  very  frequently  varied  in 
its  termination:  asj  "I^^^m  loved  him  truly,  thou  wouldst 
obey  him;"  "Thouelrthou  did  conform,  thou  hast  gained 
nothing  by  it.'''  iTnis  variation,  however,  appears  to  be 
improper.  Our  present  version  of  the  Scriptures,  which 
we  again  refer  to,  as  a  ^ood  grammatical  authority  in 
points  of  this  nature,  decides  against  it.  "If  thou  kneivesi 
the  gift,"  &c.  John  iv.  10.  "If  thou  didst  receive  it, 
why  dost  thou  glory?"  &c.  1  Cor,  iv.  7.  See  also  Dan. 
V.  22.    But  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  the  form  of  the 


Rule  19.]  SYKTAX.  183 

verb  to  he,  when  used  subjunctively  in  the  imperfect 
tense,  is  indeed  Very  considerably  and  properly  varied 
from  that  which  it  has  in  the  imperfect  of  the  indicative 
mood:  as  the  learner  will  perceive  by  turning  to  the 
conjugation  of  that  verb. 

8.  It  may  not  be  superfluous,  also  to  observe,  that  the 
auxiliaries  of  the  potential  mood,  when  applied  to  the 
subjunctive,  do  not  change  the  termination  of  the  second 
person  singular.  We  properly  say,  *'If  thou  mayst  or 
canst  go;*'  **Though  thou  mightst  live;"  "Unless  thou 
conldst  read;"  ''If  thou  tvouldst  learn;"  and  not,  "If  thou 
may  or  can  go,"  &c.  It  is  sufficient,  on  this  point,  to 
adduce  the  authorities  of  Johnson  and  Lowth;  *'If  tho« 
shouldst  goi'^  Johnson,  '*If  thou  mayst,  mightst,  or  couldst 
love;"  Lowth,  Some  authors  think,  that  when  that  ex- 
presses the  motive  or  end,  the  termination  of  these  aux- 
iliaries should  be  varied:  as,  "I  advise  thee,  tluit  thou 
may  beware;"  "He  checked  thee,  that  thou  should  not 
presume:"  but  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  ground 
for  this  exception.  If  the  expression  of  "condition,  doubt> 
contingency,"  &c.  does  not  warrant  a  change  in  the 
form  of  these  auxiliaries,  why  should  they  have  it,  when 
a  motive  or  end  is  expressed?  The  translators  of  the 
Scriptures  do  not  appear  to  have  made  the  distinction 
contended  for.  "Thou  buildest  the  wall,  that  thou  mayst 
be  their  king."  Neh.  vi.  6.  "There  is  forgiveness  with 
thee,  that  thou  mayst  be  feared."  Psalm  cxxx.  4. 
^^rom  the  preceding  observations  under  this  rule,  it 
appears,  that  with  respect  to  what  is  termed  the  present 
tense  of  any  verb,  when  the  circumstances  of  contingency 
and  futurity  concur,  it  is  proper  to  vary  the  terminations 
of  the  second  and  third  persons  singular;  that  without 
the  concurrence  of  those  circumstances,  the  terminations 
should  not  be  altered;  and  that  the  verb  and  the  auxilia- 
ries of  the  three  past  tenses,  and  the  auxiliaries  of  the 
first  future,  undergo  no  alterations  whatever:  except  the 
imperfect  of  the  verb  to  be,  which,  in  cases  denoting  con- 
tingency, is  varied  in  all  the  persons  of  the  singular 
nu  mber .  ■*►  See  page  8  2.     The  Note. 

After  perusing  what  has  been  advanced  on  this  subject, 
it  will  be  natural  for  the  student  to  inquire,  what  is  the 
extent  of  the  subjunctive  mood?    Some  gramraariana 


184  ENGLISH    GRAMMAH.  [Rulc  19» 

think  it 'extends  only  to  what  is  called  the  present  tense 
of  verbs  generally,  under  the  circumstances  of  contin- 
j^ency  and  fiitiirity;  and  to  the  imperfect  tense  of  the 
verb  to  be,,  when  \t  denotes  contingency,  &c.:  because  in 
these  tenses  only,  the  form  of  the  verb  admits  of  varia- 
tion; and  they  suppose  that  it  is  variation  merely  which 
constitutes  the  distinction  of  moods.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
other  grammarians,  (in  which  opinion  we  concur,)  that, 
besides  the  two  cases  just  mentioned,  all  verbs  in  the 
three  past,  and  the  two  future  tenses,  are  in  the  subjunc- 
five  mood,  when  they  denote  contingency  or  uncertainty, 
though  they  have  not  any  change  of  termination;  and 
that,  when  contingency  is  not  signified,  the  verb,  through 
all  these  five  'tenses,  belongs  to  the  indicative  mood, 
wliatever  conjunction  may  attend  it.  They  think,  that 
the  definition  and  nature  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  have 
no  reference  to  cliange  of  termination,  but  that  they  refer 
merely  to  tlie  manner  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion, 
signified  by  the  verb;  and  that  the  subjunctive  mood  mav 
as  properly  exist  without  a  variation  of  the  verb,  as  the 
infinitive  mood,  which  has  no  terminations  different  from 
those  of  the  indicative.  The  decision  of  this  point  may 
not,  by  some  grammarians,  be  thought  of  much  conse- 
quence. But  the  rules  which  ascertain  the  propriety  of 
varying,  or  not  varying,  the  terminations  of  tne  verb, 
will  certainly  be  deemed  important.  These  rules  may 
be  well  observed,  without  a  unifonnity  of  sentiment  re- 
specting the  nature  and  limits  of  the  subjunctive  mood. 
For  further  remarks  on  the  subject,  see  pages  72,  76 — 
78.   94—96.  100—102. 


*  We  have  stated,  for  the  student's  information,  the  different  opinions  of 
grammarians,  respecting  the  English  Subjunctive  Mood:  First  that  whi«b 
supposes  there  is  no  such  mood  in  our  language;  Secondly,  that  which  extends 
it  no  farther  than  the  variations  of  the  verb  extend;  Thirdly,  that  which  we 
have  adopted,  and  explained  at  large;  and  which,  in  general,  corresponds  with 
the  views  of  the  most  approved  writers  on  English  Grammar.  We  may  add  a 
tCotirth  opinion;  which  appears  to  possess,  at  least,  iriuch  plausibility.  This 
opinion  admits  the  arrangement  we  have  given,  with  one  variation,  namely, 
tnat  of  assigning  to  the  tirst  tense  of  the  subjunctive,  two  forms:  1st,  that 
which  simply  denotes  contingency:  as.  "If  he  desires  it,  1  will  perform  the 
operation:"  that  is,  "If  he  now  desires  it;"  2dly,  that  which  denotes  both  con- 
tingency and  futurity;  as.  "If  he  desire  it,  I  will  perform  the  operation;"  that 
is.  "If  he  should  hereafter  desire  it."  This  last  theory  of  the  subjunctive  mood, 
rlaims the  merit  of  rendering  the  whole  system  of  the  moods  consistent  and 
regular;  of  being  more  conformable  than  any  other,  to  tiie  definition  of  the 


Rule  19.]  SYNTAX.  185 

9.  Some  conjunctions  have  correspondent  conjunction? 
belonginff  to  them,  either  expressed  or  understood;  as, 

1st.  Though^ — yet,  nevertheless:  as,  "TVtowg/t  he  was 
lich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor."  '^Though  pow- 
erful, he  was  meek." 

2d,  Whether — or:  as,  '^Whether  he  will  go  or  not,  1 
cannot  tell," 

3d,  Either — or:  as,  "I  will  either  send  it,  or  bring  it 
myself," 

4th,  Neither — nor:  as,  ^^Neither  he  nor  I  am  able  to 
compass  it." 

5th,  As — as:  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality:  as, 
•*She  is  as  amiable  as  her  sister;  and  as  much  respect- 
ed." 

6th,  As — so:  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality^  as. 
*'As  the  stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be." 

7th,  Jls — so:  expressing  a  comparison  of  quality:  as, 
^•'As  the  one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other."  '''As  he  reads, 
they  read," 

8th,  So — as:  with  a  verb  expressing  a  comparison  of 
quality:  as,  "To  see  thy  glory,  so  as  I  nave  seen  thee  m 
the  sanctuary." 

9th,  So — as:  with  a  negative  and  an  adjective  exjM-esS' 
ing  a  comparison  of  quantity:  as,  "Pompey  was  not  so 
gi-eat  a  general  as  Caesar,  nor  so  great  a  man." 
'      10th,  So — that:  expressing  a  consequence:    as,  "He 
was  so  fatigued,  that  he  could  scarcely  move." 

The  conjunctions  or  and  nor  may  often  be  used,  with 
nearly  equal  propriety.  "The  king,  whose  character 
was  not  sufficiently  vigorous,  nor  decisive,  assented  to 
the  measure."  In  this  sentence,  or  would  perhaps  have 
been  better:  but,  Iq  general,  nor  seems  to  repeat  the  ne- 
gation in  the  former  part  of  the  sentence,  and  therefore 
gives  more  emphasis  to  the  expression. 

1 0.  Conjunctions  are  often  improperly  used,  both  singly 
and  in  pairs.  The  following  are  examples  of  this  impro- 
priety. "The  relations  are  so  uncertain,  as  that  they 
require  a  great  deal  of  examination:"  it  should  be,  ^^that 
they  require,"  &.c.     ''There  was  no  man  so  sanguine, 

subjunctive,  and  of  not  referring  to  the  indicative  mood  forms  of  expr^esion. 
.  whicii  ill  accord  with  its  simplicity  and  nature.    Perhaps  tbk  theory  will  bear  a 
strict  examination. 

Q2 


186  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [Rulc  19- 

who  did  not  apprehend  some  ill  consequences:"  it  ought 
id  be,  **so  sanguine  as  not  to  apprehend,"  &c.;  or,  <'no 
man,  how  sanguine  soever,  who  did  not,"  &c.  '*To 
trust  in  him  is  no  more  but  to  acknowledge  his  power." 
*'This  is  no  other  but  the  gate  of  paradise."  In  both 
these  instances,  but  should  be  than.  **We  should  suffi- 
cient! j  weigh  the  objects  of  our  hope;  whether  thej  are 
such  as  we  may  reasonably  expect  from  them  what  they 
propose,"  &c.  It  ought  to  be,  ''that  we  may  reasonably," 
&:c.  ''The  Duke  had  not  behaved  with  that  loyalty  as 
he  ought  to  have  done;"  "with  which  he  ought."  "In 
the  order  as  the  lie  in  his  preface:"  it  should  be,  "in 
order  as  they  lie;"or,  "in  the  order  in  which  they  lie." 
"Such  sharp  replies  that  cost  him  his  life;"  ''as  cost  him," 
&c.  *'If  he.  were  truly  that  scarecrow,  as  he  is  now 
commonly  painted;"  "such  a  scarecrow,"  &c.  "I  wish  I 
could  do  that  justice  to  his  memory,  to  oblige  the  paint- 
ers," &c.;  "do  swc/i  justice  as  to  oblige,"  &c. 


There  is  a  peculiar  neatness  in  a  sentence  beginning 
with  the  conjunctive  form  of  a  verb.  "Were  there  no 
difference,  there  would  be  no  choice." 

A  double  conjunctive,  in  two  correspondent  clauses 
of  a  sentence,  is  sometimes  made  use  of:  as,  "Had  he 
done  this,  he  had  escaped;"  "Had  the  limitations  on  the 

I)rerogative  been,  in  his  time,  quite  fixed  and  certain, 
lis  integrity  had  made  him  regard  as  sacred,  the  bound- 
aries of  the  constitution."  The  sentence  in  the  common 
form  would  have  read  thus:  "If  the  limitations  on  the 
prerogative  had  been,  &c.  his  integrity  would  have  made 
iiim  regard,"  &c. 

The  particle  as,  when  it  is  connected  with  the  pro- 
noun such,  has  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun:  as,  "Let 
such  as  presume  to  advise  others,  look  well  to  their  own 
conduct;"  which  is  equivalent  to,  "Let  them  who  pre- 
sume," &c.'.But  when  used  by  itself,  this  particle  is  to 
be  considered  as  a  conjunction  or  perhaps  as  an  adverb. 
See  the  Key. 

Our  language  wants  a  conjunction  adapted  to  familiar 
style,  equivalent  to  notwithstanding.  The  words /or  alU 
thaty  seem  to  be  too  low.     "The  word  was  in  the  mouth 


Rule  20.]  SYNTAX.  187 

of  every  one,  but,  for  all  that,  the  subject  may  still  be  a 
secret." 

In  regard  that  is  solemn  and  antiquated;  becausevfouXiS. 
do  much  better  in  the  following  sentence.  "It  cannot 
be  otherwise,  in  regard  that  the  French  prosody  differs 
from  that  of  every  other  language." 

The  word  excefpt  is  far  preferable  to  other  than.  "It 
admitted  of  no  effectual  cure  other  than  amputation." 
Except  is  also  to  be  preferred  to  all  hut,  "Tliey  were 
happy  all  but  the  stranger." 

In  the  two  following  phrases,  the  conjunction  as  is 
improperly  omitted;  < 'Which  nobody  presumes,  or  is  so 
sanguine  *  to  hope."  "I  must,  however,  be  so  just  a  to 
own. " 

The  conjunction  that  is  often  properly  omitted,  and 
understood:  as,  "I  beg  you  would  come  to  me;"  "See 
thou  do  it  not;"  instead  of,  "that  you  would,"  "that 
thou  do."  But  in  the  following  and  many  similar  phrases, 
this  conjunction  were  much  better  inserted:  "Yet  it  is 
reason  the  memory  of  their  virtues  remain  to  posterity." 
It  should  be,  **yet  it  isjust  that  the  memory,"  &c. 

RULE  XX. 

When  the  qualities  of  different  things  are  com- 
pared, the  latter  noun  or  pronoun  is  not  governed  by 
the  conjunction  than  or  as,  but  agrees  with  the  verlji, 
or  is  governed  by  the  verb  or  the  preposition,  ex- 
pressed or  understood:  as,  "Thou  art  wiser  than  I;'' 
that  is,  **than  I  am."  "They  loved  him  more  than 
me;"  i.  e.  "more  than  they  loved  me."  "The  senti- 
ment is  well  expressed  by  Plato,  but  much  better  by 
Solomon  than  him;"  that  is,  "than  by  him."* 

The  propriety  or  impjppriety  of  many  plu-ases,  in  the 
preceding  as  well  as  in  some  other  forms,  may  be  dis- 
covered, by  suppljing  the  words  that  are  not  expressed; 
which  will  be  evident  from  the  following  instances  of 
erroneous  construction.  "He  can  read  better  than  me." 
"He  is  as  good  as  her."  "W^hether  I  be  present  or  no." 
"Who  did  this?  Me."    By  supplying  the  words  under- 

*  S«e  the  Tenth,  or  apy  suhsequent.  .Edition  of  the  Key;  Kule  xx.  The  Note. 


188  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rulc  21. 

stood  in  each  of  these  phrases,  their  impropriety  and  go- 
verning rule  will  appear;  as,  "Better  than  I  can  read;" 
"As  good  as  she  is;"  "Present  or  not  present;"  "I  did  it." 
1.  By  not  attending  to  this  rule,  many  errors  have  been 
committed:  a  number  of  which  is  subjoined,  as  a  further 
caution  and  direction  to  the  learner.  "Thou  art  a  much 
greater  loser  than  me  by  his  death."  "She  suffers  hourly 
more  than  me."  "We  contributed  a  third  more  than  the 
Dutch,  who  were  obliged  to  the  same  proportion  more 
than  us."  "King  Charles,  and  more  than  him,  the  duke 
and  the  popish  faction,  were  at  liberty  to  form  new 
schemes."  "The  drift  of  all  his  sermons  was,  to  prepare 
the  Jews  for  the  reception  of  a  prophet  mightier  than 
him,  and  whose  shoes  he  was  not  worthy  to  bear."  "It 
was  not  the  work  of  so  eminent  an  author,  as  him  to 
whom  it  was  first  imputed."  "A  stone  is  heavy,  and  the 
sand  weighty;  but  a  fool's  wrath  is  heavier  than  them 
both."  "If  the  king  give  us  leave,  we  may  perform  the 
office  as  well  as  them  that  do."  In  these  passages  it 
ought  to  be,  "/,  we^  he,  they^'^  respectively. 
-  When  the  relative  who  immediately  follows  than,  it 
seems  to  form  an  exception  to  the  20th  rule;  for  in  that 
connexion,  the  relative  must  be  in  the  objective  case; 
as,  * 'Alfred,  than  whom,  a  greater  king  never  reigned," 
&c.  "Beelzebub,  than  whom,  Satan  excepted,  none  liigher 
sat,"  &c.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  such  instances,  if  the 
personal  pronoun  were  used,  it  would  be  in  the  nomina- 
tive case;  as,  ''A  gi*eater  king  never  reigned  than  Ae,*" 
that  is,  '•^than  he  wasP  "Beelzebub,  than  Ae,"  &€.;  that 
is,  Hhan  he  sat.^^  The  phrase  than  whom^  is,  however, 
avoided  by  the  best  modern  writers.  ■«• 

^  RULE  XXI. 

To  avoid  disagreeable  repetitions,  and  to  express 
our  ideas  in  few  words,  an  ellipsis,  or  omission  of 
some  words,  is  frequently  admitted.  Instead  of  say- 
ing, **He  was  a  learned  man,  he  was  a  wise  man,  and 
he  was  a  good  man;''  we  make  use  of  the  ellipsis,  and 
say,  <*He  was  a  learned,  wise,  and  good  man." 

When  the  omission  of  words  would  obscure  the 
sentence,  vireaken  its  force,  or  be  attended  with  an 


Rule  21.]  SYNTAX.  189 

impropriety,  they  must  be  expressed.  In  the  sen- 
tence, <*We  are  apt  to  love  who  love  us,"  the  word 
them  should  be  supplied.  **A  beautiful  field  and 
trees,"  is  not  proper  language.  It  should  be,  *  ^Beau- 
tiful fields  and  trees;"  or,  **A  beautiful  field  and  fine 
trees. " 

Almost  all  compounded  sentences  are  more  or  less  el- 
liptical; some  examples  of  which  maj  be  seen  under  the 
different  parts  of  speech. 

1.  The  ellipsis  of  the  article  is  thus  used;  "A  man, 
woman,  and  child;"  that  is,  "a  man,  a  woman,  and  a 
child."  "A  house  and  garden;"  that  is,  "a  house  and  a 
garden."  '"The  sun  and  moon;"  that  is,  "the  sun  and 
tlie  moon."  "The  day  and  hour;"  that  is,  "the  day  and 
the  hour."  In  all  these  instances,  the  article  being  once 
expressed,  the  repetition  of  it  becomes  unnecessary. — 
There  is,  however,  an  exception  to  this  observation, 
when  some  peculiai*  emphasis  requires  a  repetition;  as 
in  the  following  sentence.  "Not  only  the  year,  but  the 
day  and  the  hour."  In  this  case,  the  ellipsis  of  the  last, 
article  would  be  improper.  When  a  different  form  of 
the  article  is  requisite,  the  article  is  also  properly  re- 
peated: as,  *'a  house  and  an  orchard;"  instead  of,  »*a 
house  and  orchard." 

2.  Tlie  noun  is  frequently  omitted  in  the  following 
manner.  "The  laws  of  God  and  man;"  that  is,  "the  laws 
of  God  and  the  laws  of  man."  In  some  very  emphatical 
expressions,  the  ellipsis  should  not  be  used:  as,  "Christ 
the  power  of  God,  and  the  wisdom  of  God;"  which  is  more 
emphatical  than,  "Christ  the  power  and  wisdom  of  God." 

3.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adjective  is  used  in  the  following 
manner.  "A  delightful  garden  and  orchard;"  that  is,  "a 
delightful  garden  and  a  delightful  orchard."  "A  little 
man  and  woman;"  that  is,  "A  little  man  and  a  little 
woman."  In  such  elliptical  expressions  as  these,  the 
adjective  ought  to  have  exactly  the  same  signification, 
and  to  be  quite  as  proper,  when  joined  to  the  latter  sub- 
stantive as  to  the  former;  otherwise  the  ellipsis  should 
not  be  admitted. 

Sometimes  the  ellipsis  is  improperly  applied  to  nouns 
of  different  numbers:  as,  "A  magnificent  house  and  gar- 


190  EXGLISII    GRAMMAR.  [Kule  21. 

dens."    In  this  case  it  is  better  to  use  another  adjective; 
as,  "A  magnificent  house  and  fine  gardens." 

4.  The  followin;^  is  the  ellipsis  of  the  pronoun,  "I  love 
and  fear  him;"  tiiat  is,  "I  love  him,  and  I  fear  him." 
•*My  house  and  lands;"  that  is,  '*my  house  and  my 
lands."  In  these  instances  the  ellipsis  may  take  plac^ 
with  propriety;  but  if  we  would  be  more  express  and 
empliatical,  it  must  not  be  used:  as,  "His  friends  and 
his  foes;"  "My  sons  and  my  daughters." 

In  some  of  the  coiiniion  forms  of  speech,  the  relative 
pronoun  is  usually  omitted:  as,  ''This  is  the  man  they 
love;"  instead  of,  "This  is  the  man  whom  they  love." 
'  'These  are  the  goods  they  bought;"  for,  "These  are  the 
iiooils  which  they  bought." 

In  complex  sentences,. it  is  much  better  to  have  the 
lelutive  pronoun  expressed:  as  it  is  more  proper  to  say, 
"Tlie  posture  in  which  I  lay;"  than,  ''In  the  posture' I 
hiy:"  *'Tlie  horse  on  which  I  rode,  fell  down;"  than, 
•'The  horse  I  rode,  fell  down." 

The  antecedent  and  the  relative  connect  the  parts  of  a 
stMitence  together,  and,  to  prevent  obscurity  and  confu- 
sion, should  answer  to  each  other  with  great  exactness* 
"We  speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have 
seen."  Here  the  ellipsis  is  manifestly  improper,  and 
ought  to  be  supplied:  as,  "We  speak  that  ivhich  we  do 
know,  and  testify  that  which  we  have  seen." 

5.  The  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  used  in  the  following  in- 
stances. "The  man  was  old  and  crafty;"  that  is,  "the 
man  was  old,  and  the  man  was  crafty."  "She  was  young, 
and  beautiful,  and  good;"  that  is,  "She  was  young,  she 
was  beautiful,  and  she  was  good."  "Thou  art  poor,  and 
wretched,  and  miserable,  and  blind,  ai¥l  naked."  If  we 
would  fiJl  up  the  ellipsis  in  the  last  sentence,  thou  art 
ought  to  be  repeated  before  each  of  the  adjectives. 

If,  in  such  enumeration,  we  choose  to  point  out  one 
property  above  the  rest,  that  property  must  be  placed 
last,  and  the  ellipsis  supplied:  as,  **She  is  young  and 
beautiful,  and  she  is  good." 

"I  went  to  see  and  hear  him;"  that  is,  "I  went  to  see 
and  I  went  to  hear  him."  In  this  instance  there  is  not  only 
an  ellipsis  of  the  governing  verb  /  went^  but  likewise  of 
the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  which  is  governed  by  it. 


Rule  21.]  SYNTAX.  191 

Do,  did,  have,  had,  shall,  will,  may,  might,  and  the  rest 
t)f  the  auxiliaries  of  the  compound  tenses,  are  frequently 
used  alone,  to  spare  the  repetition  of  the  verb:  as,  *'He 
regards  his  word,  but  thou  dost  not:"  i.  e.  "dost  not  re- 
gard it."  *'We  succeeded,  but  they  did  not;"  "did  not 
succeed."  "I  have  learned  my  task,  but  thou  hast  notj" 
"hast  not  learned."  "They  must,  and  they  shall  be  pu- 
nished;" that  is,  "they  must  be  punished."  See  the  Key. 

6.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adverb  is  used  in  the  following 
manner.  '*He  spoke  and  acted  wisely;"  that  is,  "He 
spoke  wisely,  and  he  acted  wisely."  "Thrice  I  went 
and  offered  my  service;"  that  is,  ''Thrice  I  went,  and 
thrice  I  offered  my  service." 

7.  The  ellipsis  of  the  preposition,  as  well  as  of  the 
verb,  is  seen  in  the  following  instances:  "He  went  into 
the  abbeys,  halls,  and  public  buildings;"  that  is,  ''he 
went  into  the  abbeys,  ne  went  into  the  halls,  and  he 
went  into  the  public  buildings."  "He  also  went  through 
all  the  streets  and  lanes  of  the  city;"  that  is,  "through 
all  the  streets,  and  through  all  the  lanes,"  &c.  "He 
spoke  to  every  man  and  woman  there;"  that  is,  "to  every 
man  and  to  every  woman."   "This  day,  next  month,  last 

J' ear;"  that  is,  '*on  this  day,  in  the  next  month,  in  the 
ast  year."  "The  Lord  do  that  which  seemeth  him  good;" 
that  is,  "which  seemeth  to  him. !' 

8.  The  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  is  as  follows:  "They 
^confess  the  power,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  love,  of  their 
Creator;"  i.  e.  "the  power,  and  wisdom,  and  goodness, 
and  love  of,"  &c.  "Though  I  love  him,  I  do  not  flatter 
him;"  that  is,  "though  I  love  him,  yet  I  do  not  flatter 
liim." 

9.  The  ellipsis  of  the  interjection  is  not  very  common; 
it,  however,  is  sometimes  used:  as,  "Oh!  pity  and  shame!" 
that  is,  "Oh  pity!  Oh  shame!" 

As  the  ellipsis  occurs  in  almost  every  sentence  in  the 
English  language,  numerous  examples  of  it  might  be 
given;  but  only  a  few  more  can  be  admitted  here. 

In  the  following  instance  there  is  a  very  considerable 
one:  "He  will  often  argue,  that  if  this  part  of  our  trade 
were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  one  naticm; 
and  if  another,  from  another;"  that  is,  "He  will  often 
largue,  that  if  this  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated. 


192  ENGLISrt    GRAMMAR.  [Rulc   22^ 

we  should  gain  from  one  nation,  and  if  another  part  of 
our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from 
another  nation." 

The  following  instances,  though  short,  contain  much 
of  the  ellipsis.  "Wo  is  me;"  i.  e.  "wo  is  to  me."  "To 
let  blood;"  i.  e.  "to  let  out  blood."  "To  let  down;"  i.  e. 
"to  let  it  fall  or  slide  down."  <*To  walk  a  mile;"  i.  e. 
"to  walk  through  the  space  of  a  mile."  *'To  sleep  all 
night;"  i.  e.  "to  sleep  through  all  the  night."  "To  go  a 
fisning;"  "To  go  a  hunting;"  i.  e.  *'to  go  on  a  fishing 
voyage  or  business;"  "to  go  on  a  hunting  party."  "I 
dine  at  two  o'clock;"  i.  e.  '*at  two  of  the  clock."  "By 
sea,  by  land,  on  shore;"  i.  e.  "by  the  sea,  by  the  land,  on 
the  shore." 

10.  The  examples  that  follow  are  produced  to  show  the 
impropriety  of  ellipsis  in  some  particular  cases.  "The 
land  was  always  possessed,  during  pleasure,  by  those  in- 
trusted with  the  command;"  it  should  be,  "those  persons 
intrusted;"  or,  "those  who  ivere  intrusted."  '<If  he  had 
read  further,  he  would  have  found  several  of  his  objec- 
tions might  have  been  spared;"  that  is,  "he  would  have 
found  that  several  of  his  objections,"  &c.  "There  is 
nothing  men  are  more  deficient  in,  than  knowing  their 
own  characters."  It  ought  to  be,  "nothing  in  which 
men;"  and,  "than  i7i  knowing."  "I  scarcely  know  any 
part  of  natural  philosophy  would  yield  more  variety  and 
use;"  it  should  he,"tvhich  would  yield,"  &c.  "In  the  tem- 
per of  mind  he  was  then;"  i.  e.  "m  which  he  then  was." 
"The  little  satisfaction  and  consistency,  to  be  found 
in  most  of  the  systems  of  divinity  I  have  met  with,  made 
me  betake  myself  to  the  sole  reading  of  the  Scriptures;" 
it  ought  to  be,  ''which  are  to  be  found,"  and,  ''which  I 
have  met  with."  "He  desired  they  might  go  to  the  altar 
together,  and  jointly  return  their  thanks  to  whom  only 
they  were  due;"  i.  e.  "/o  him  to  whom,"  &c. 

RULE  XXII. 

All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  correspond  to  eaich 
other:  a  regular  and  dependent  construction,  through- 
out, should  oe  carefully  preserved.  The  following  sen- 
tence is  therefore  inaccurate:  "He  was  more  beloved 


Rulers.]  SYNTAX.  195 

but  not  so  much  admired,  as  Cinthio.'*  It  should  be. 
**He  was  more  beloved  than  Cinthio,  but  not  so 
much  admired, " 

The  first  example  under  this  rule,  presents  a  most  ir- 
regular construction,  namely,  "He  was  more  beloved  as 
Cinthio."  The  words  more  and  so  much,  are  very  im- 
properly stated  as  having  the  same  regimen.  In  cor- 
recting such  sentences,  it  is  not  necessary  to  supply  the 
latter  ellipsis;  because  it  cannot  lead  to  any  discordant 
or  improper  construction,  and  the  supply  would  ofteabe 
harsh  or  inelegant.     See  />.  1 85. 

As  the  22d  Rule  comprehends  all  the  preceding  rules, 
it  may,^  at  the  first  view,  appear  to  be  too  general  to  be 
useful.  But  by  ranging  under  it  a  number  of  sentences 
peculiarly  constructed,  we  shall  perceive,  that  it  is  cal- 
culated to  ascertain  the  true  grammatical  construction 
of  many  modes  of  expression,  which  none  of  the  particu- 
lar rules  can  sufficiently  explain. 

"This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book,  that: 
has,  is,  or  shall  be  published."  It  ought  to  be.,  "that  has 
been,  or  shall  be  published."  "He  was  guided  by  interests 
always  different,  sometimes  contrary  to,  those  of  the  com- 
munity;" "different  from;^^  or,  "always  different  from 
those  of  the  community,  and  sometimes  contrary  to 
them."  "Will  it  be  urged  that  these  books  are  as  old,  or 
even  older  than  tradition?"  The  words,  "as  old,"  and 
"older,"  cannot  have  a  common  regimen;  it  should  be, 
**as  old  as  tradition,  or  even  older.^'  "It  requires  few 
talents  to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or  at  leasv 
may  not  acquire;"  "or  which,  at  least,  they  may  not  ac 
quire."  "The  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates 
and  breaks  the  teeth  of  the  common  law,"  In  this  con- 
struction, the  first  verb  is  said,  "to  mitigate  the  teeth  of 
the  common  law,"  which  is  an  evident  solecism.   "Miti- 

fates  the  common  law,  and  breaks  the  teeth  of  it,"  would 
ave  been  grammatical. 
**They  presently  grew  into  good  humour,  and  good  Ian- 
^age  towards  the  crown;"  "grow  into  good  language,*' 
18  very  improper.  "There  is  never  wanting  a  set  of  evii 
imstruments,  who  either  out  of  mad  zeal,  private  hatred, 
w  filthy  lucre,  are  always  ready,"  &c.  We  say  properly- 


194  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rulc  ^S. 

•'A  man  acts  out  of  mad  zeal,"  or,  "oiit  of  nrivate  ha- 
tred;" but  we  cannot  say,  if  we  would  speak  English, 
^•'he  acts  out  of  filthy  lucre."  "To  double  her  kindness 
and  caresses  of  me;"  the  word  "kindness"  requires  to  be 
followed  bj  either  to  or  for,  and  cannot  be  construed  with 
the  preposition  of.  "Never  was  man  so  teased,  or  suf- 
fered half  the  uneasiness,  as  I  have  done  this  evening:" 
the  first  and  third  clauses,  viz.  * 'Never  was  man  so  teas- 
ed, as  I  have  done  this  evening,"  cannot  be  joined  with-' 
out  an  impropriety;  and  to  connect  the  second  and  third, 
th*  word  that  must  be  substituted  for  as;  "Or  suffered 
half  the  uneasiness  that  I  have  done;"  or  else,  ''half  so 
much  uneasiness  as  I  have  suffered." 

The  first  part  of  the  following  sentence  abounds  with 
adverbs,  and  those  such  as  are  hardly  consistent  with  one 
another:  '"How  much  soever  the  reformation  of  this  degen- 
erate a^e  is  almost  utterly  to  be  despaired  of,  we  may  yet 
have  a  more  comfortable'prospect  of  future  times."  The 
sentence  would  be  more  correct  in  the  following  form: 
^'Though  the  reformation  of  this  degenerate  age  is  nearly 
to  be  despaired  of,"  &c. 

"Oh!  shut  not  up  my  soul  with  the  sinners,  nor  my  life 
with  the  blood ;thirsty;  in  whose  hands  is  wickedness,  and 
their  right-hand  is  full  of  gifts."  As  the  passage,  intro- 
duced by  the  copulative  conjunction  a?i£/,  was  notmtended 
as  a  continuation  of  the  principal  and  independent  part 
of  the  sentence,  but  of  the  dependent  part,  the  relative 
whose  should  have  been  used  instead  of  the  possessive 
their;  viz.  "and  z^^Aose  right-hand  is  full  of  gifts." 

"Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered 
into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hath  prepared 
for  them  that  love  him."  There  seems  to  be  an  impropri- 
ety in  this  instance,  in  which  the  same  noun  serves  in  a 
djDuble  capacity,  performing  at  the  same  time  the  offices 
both  of  the  nominative  and  objective  cases.  "Neither 
hath  it  entered  into  the  heart  of  man,  to  conceive  the 
things,"  &c.  would  have  been  re^lar. 

"We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  com- 
pounding, those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  int» 
all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision."  It  is  very  propetr 
to  say,  "altering  ana  compounding  those  images  which  we 
^ve  once  received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  Jiad 


SYNTAX.  1^5 

vision;"  but  we  can  with  no  propriety  saj,  "retaining  them 
into  all  the  varieties;"  and  yet,  according  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  words  are  ranged,  this  construction  is  un- 
avoidable: for  "retaining,  altering,  and  compounding," 
are  participles,  each  of  which  equally  refers  to,  and  go- 
verns the  subsequent  noun,  those  images;  and  that  noun 
a^ain  is  necessarily  connected  with  the  following  prepo- 
sition, into.  The  construction  might  easily  have  been  rec- 
tified, by  disjoining  the  participle  retaining  from  the  other 
two  participles,  in  this  wav:  "We  have  the  power  of  re- 
taining those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  and 
of  altering  and  compounding  them  into  all  'Idie  varieties 
of  picture  and  vision;"  or,  perhaps,  better  thus:  "We  have 
the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compounding  those 
images  which  we  ha\p  once  received,  and  of  forming 
them  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision." 

INTERJECTION. 

For  the  syntax  of  the  Interjection,  see  Rule  v.  Note 
11.  page  138,  and  Note  9,  of  Rule  xxi. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  PARSINQ. 

As  we  have  finished  the  explanation  of  the  different 
parts  of  speech,  and  the  rules  for  forming  them  into  sen- 
tences, it  is  now  proper  to  give  some  examples  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  learners  should  be  exercised,  in 
oi'der  to  prove  their  knowledge,  and  to  render^*  f4*«»;iiaf 
to  them.  This  is  called  parsing.  The  nature  of  the  sub- 
jt;».t,  .*c  TTv.li  aa  uie  auapration  or  it  to  learners,  requires 
that  it  should  be  divided  into  two  parts;  viz.  parsing,  as 
it  respects  etymology  alone;  and  parsing,  as  it  respects 
both  etymology  and  syntax.* 

Section  1.  Specimens  of  Etymological  Parsing, 

* 'Virtue  ennobles  us." 

Virtue  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender, 
the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nomina- 

*  See  the  "General  Directions  for  tising  the  English  Exercises,"  prefixed  to  the 
Eighth  and  every  subsequent  eilicion  of  thai  book. 


i96  ENGLISH  ORAMMAH. 

five  case.  ( Decline  the  noun.)  Ennobles  is  a  regular  Terb 
active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  per- 
son singular.  (Repeat  the  present  tense,  the  imperfect  tense^ 
and  the  perfect  participle,*)  Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of 
the  first  person  plural,  and  in  the  objective  case.  (Be- 
dine  if,) 

"Goodness  will  be  rewarded." 

Goodness  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gen- 
der, the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  no- 
minative case.  (Decline  it.)  Will  be  rewarded,  is  a  regular 
vei'b,  in  the  passive  voice,  the  indicative  mood,  the  first  f  u 
ture  tense,  aifd  the  third  person  singular.  (Repeat  the  pre- 
sent tense,  the  imperfect  tense,  and  theperfect  participle.) 

''Strive  to  improle." 

Strive  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  imperative 
mood,  and  of  the  second  person  singular.  (Repeat  the 
present  tense,  fyc)  To  improve  is  a  regular  verb  neuter, 
and  in  the  infinitive  mood.  (Repeat  the  present  tense,  <^c.  J 

"Time  flies,  O!  how  swiftly." 

Tirne  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender, 
the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nomina- 
tive case-  (Decline  the  noun.)  Flies  is  an  irregular  verb 
neuter,  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third 
person  singular.  (Repeat  the  present  tense,  ^c.)  0!  is  an 
interjection.    How  and  swiftly  are  adverbs. 

Gratitude  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gen 
der,  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the 
nominative  case.  (Decline  it.)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb 
neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third 
person  singular.  (Repeat  the  present  tense,  ^c.)  A  is  the 
indefinite  article.  Delightful  is  an  adjective  in  the  posi- 
tive state.  ( Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison.)  Emotion 
is  a  common  substantive  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third 
person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
(Decline  it.) 

*  The  learner  should  occasionally  repeat  all  the  moods  and  tenses  of  the  vexh- 


SYNTAX.  19^ 

"They  who  forgive,  act  nobly." 
^cey  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the 
plural  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case-.   (Decline  it,) 
fVho  is  a  relative  pronoun,  and  the  nominative  case.  (De- 
eline  it.)    Forgive  is  an  irregular  verb  active,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  plural.     (Be 
peat  the  present  tense,  ^'C.)  Act  is  a  regular  verb  active, 
indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  plu 
ral.  (Repeat,  ^c.)     Nobly  is  an  adverb  of  quality.    (Re- 
peat the  degrees  of  comparison.) 

**By  living  temperately,  our  health  is  promoted." 
By  is  a  preposition.  Living  is  the  present  participle  ol 
the  regular  neuter  verb  "to  live."  (Repeat  the  partici- 
ples.) Temperately  is  an  adverb  of  quality.  Our  is  an 
adjective  pronoun  of  tlie  possessive  kind.  (Decline  it.) 
Health  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline  it.) 
Is  promoted  is  a  regular  verb  passive,  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  (Repeat,  ^x.) 

"We  should  be  kind  to  them,  who  are  unkind  to  us." 
TVe  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline  it.)  Should 
be  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  potential  mood,  the 
imperfect  tense,  and  the  first  person  plural.  (Repeat  the 
present  tense,  Sj-c.)  Kind  is  an  adjective,  in  the  positive 
state.  (Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison.)  To  is  a  prepo- 
sition. Them  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person, 
the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case.  (Decline 
it.)  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  and  in  the  nominative 
case.  (Decline  it.)  Are  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in- 
dicative mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  plural . 
(Repeat,  Sfc.)  Unkind  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state. 
(Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison.)  To  is  a  preposition. 
Us  IS  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural 
number,  and  in  the  objective  case.    (Decline  it.) 

Section  2.     Specimens  of  Syntactical  Parsing, 

**Vice  produces  misery." 
Vice  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender, 
fhfi  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nojai- 


1^8  ENGLISH  GfilAMMAR. 

native  case.  Produces  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  its  nominative  "mce,"  according  to  rule  i.  which 
sajs;  (here  repeat  the  nde.)  Misery  is  a  common  substan- 
tive, of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third  person,  the  singular 
number,  and  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active 
verb  "produces,"  according  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c. 

"Peace  and  joy  are  virtue's  crown." 

Peace  is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  gender, 
person,  mimber,  and  case.)  Jind  is  a  copulative  conjunc- 
tion. Joy  is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person, 
nurnber,  and  case,)  Are  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indi- 
cative mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  plural, 
agreeing  with  the  nominative  case  "peace  and  joy,"  ac- 
cording to  RULE  II.  which  sa}^s;  (here  repeat  the  rule.) 
Virtues  is  a  common  substantive^  of  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by 
the  substantive  ''crown,"  agreeably  to  rule  x.  which 
says,  &c.  Crown  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter 
gender,  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the 
nominative  case,  agreeably  to  the  fourth  note  of  rule  xr 

"Wisdom  or  folly  governs  us." 

Tf^sdoyn  is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  gender^ 
person,  number,  and  case.)  Or  is  a  disjunctive  conjunction. 
FoUy  is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person,  7iiim- 
her,  and  case.)  Governs  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indica- 
tive mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular^ 
agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  "wisdom"  or  ''folly," 
according  to  rule  hi.  which  says,  &c.  Us  is  a  personal 
pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  plural  number,  and  in  the 
objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  "governs," 
agreeably  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c. 

"Every  heart  knows  its  sorrows." 

Every  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  distributive  kind, 
agreeing  with  its  substantive  "heart,"  according  to  Note 
.9  under  rule  viii.  which  says,  &c.  Heart  is  a  common 
substantive.  (Repeat  the  gender, person,  number,  and  case.) 
Knows  is  an  irregular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  pre- 
sent tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nomif 


SYNTAX.  1^9 ' 

native  case  '^heart,'*  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c. 
Its  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person  singular, 
and  of  the  neuter  gender,  to  agree  with  its  substantive 
''heart,"  according  to  rule  v.  which  says,  &c.;  it  is  in 
the  possesive  case,  governed  by  the  noun  * 'sorrows," 
according  to  rule  x,  which  says,  &c.  Sorrows  is  a  com- 
mon substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the  plural  number, 
and  the  objective  case  governed  by  the  active  verb 
'^'knows,"  according  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c. 

"The  man  is  happy  who  lives  wisely." 
Tfie  is  the  definite  article.  Man  is  a  common  substan- 
tive. (Repeat  the  person^  number,  and  case.)  Is  is  an  ir- 
regular verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and 
the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  the  nominative 
case  *'man,"  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c.  Hap- 
py is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state.  TVho  is  a  relative 
pronoun,  which  has  for  its  antecedent,  "man,"  with 
which  it  agrees  in  gender  and  number,  according  to  rulf. 
v.  which  says,  &c.  Lives  is  a  regular  verb  neuter,  indica- 
tive mood,  present  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  its  nominative  "who,"  according  to  rule  vi.  whicli 
says,  &c.  Wisely  is  an  adverb  of  quality,  placed  after 
the  verb,  according  to  rule  xv. 

"Who  preserves  us?" 
Who  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind, 
and  in  the  nominative  case  singular.  The  word  to  which 
it  relates,  (its  subsequent,)  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  con- 
taining the  answer  to  the  question;  agreeably  to  a  note 
under  rule  vi.  Preserves  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indi- 
cative mood,  present  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  its  nommative  "who,"  according  to  rule  vi.  which 
says,  &c.  Us  is  a  personal  pronoun.  (Repeat  thepersony 
number,  case,  and  rule.) 

"Wliose  house  is  that?  My  brother's  and  mine. 
Who  inhabit?  We." 
Whose  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind, 
and  relates  to  the  following  words,  "Brother's"  and 
"mine,"  agreeably  to  a  note  under  rule  vi.  It  is  in  the 
possessive  case,  governed  by  "house,"  according  to 
RULE  X.  which  says,  &c.   House  is  a  common  substantive. 


200  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

f Repeat  the  gender,  person,  number,  and  case.)  Is  is  an . 
irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and 
the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative 
case  "house,"  according  to  rule  i.  which  sajs,  &c.  That 
Is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind.  My 
is  an  adjectfve  pronoun  of  the  possessive  kind.  Brother'' s 
is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular 
number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by  "bouse*" 
understood,  according  to  rule  x.  and  a  note  under  rule 
VI.  And  is  a  copulative  conjunction.  Mine  is  a  personal 
pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in 
the  possessive  case,  according  to  a  note  under  rule  x. 
and  another  under  rule  vi.  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun 
of  the  interrogative  kind,  of  the  plural  number,  in  the 
nominative  case,  and  relates  to  "we"  following,  according 
to  a  note  under  rule  vi.  Inhabit  is  a  regular  verb  active. 
(Repeat  the  mood,  tense,  person,  fyc.)  It  is  a  personal 
pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and 
m  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  "in- 
habit," according  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c.  We  is  a 
personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural  number, 
and  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  "^inhabit''  under- 
stood. The  words  "inhabit  it"  are  implied  after  '*we," 
agreeably  to  a  note  under  rule  vi. 

"Remember  to  assist  the  distressed." 

Remeinber  is  a  regular  verb  active,  imperative  mood, 
the  second  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  nomina- 
tive case  <'thou"  understood.  To  assist  is  a  regular  verb 
active,  in  the  infinitive  mood,  governed  by  the  preceding 
verb  "remember,"  according  to  rule  xii.  which  says,&c. 
The  is  the  definite  article.  Distressed  is  an  adjective 
put  substantively. 

"We  are  not  unemployed." 

We  is  a  personal  pronoun.  (Repeat  the  person,  nurrtb^-, 
and  case.)  Are  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter.  (Repeat  the. 
mood,  tense,  person,  fc.)  Not  is  an  adverb  of  negation. 
Unemployed  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state.  The 
two  negatives  not  and  un,  form  an  affirmative,  agreeably 
to  RULE  XVI.  which  says,  &c. 


SYNTAX.  ^Oi 

•*This  btuntj  has  relieved  you  and  us;  aM  has  grati- 
fied the  donor." 

This  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind. 
Bounty  is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person, 
number^  and  case.)  Has  relieved  is  a  regular  verb  active, 
indicative  mood,  perfect  tense,  third  person  singular, 
agreein;^  with  its  nominative  "bounty,"  according  to  rulk 
r.  which  says,  &c.  You  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the 
second  person  plural,  and  in  the  objective  case.  (Repeat 
the  government  and  rule,)  And  is  a  copulative  conjunc- 
tion. Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  in  the  objective  case. 
You  and  us  are  put  in  the  same  case,  according  to  rulk 
xviii.  which  says,  &c.  Jind  is  a  copulative  conjunction. 
Has  gratified  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood, 
perfect  tense,  and  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its 
nominative  "bounty,"  understood,  "i/as  relieved,''^  and 
^*Has  gratified^^''  are  in  the  same  mood  and  tense,  accord- 
ing to  RULE  XVIII.  which  says,  &c.  The  is  the  definite 
article.  Donor  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  per- 
son, the  singular  number,  and  the  objective  case  governed 
by  the  active  verb  "has  gratified,"  according  to  rule  xi. 
which  says,  &c.     See  the  Octavo  Grammur,  on  Gender, 

"He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repent." 

He  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 
number,  masculine  gander,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
Will  be  pardoned  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  indicative 
mood,  first  future  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular, 
agreeing  with  its  nominative  "he,"  according;  to  rule  i. 
and  composed  of  the  auxiliaries  "will  be,"  and  the  periei  t 
participle  "pardoned."  Not  is  a  negative  adverb.  Unles& 
IS  a  disjunctive  conjunction.  Z/ie  is  a  personal  pronoun 
(Repeat  the  person,  number,  gender,  ana  case.)  Repent  is  a 
regular  verb  neuter,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present 
tense,  the  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  no- 
minative case  "he,"  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c. 
It  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  because  it  implies  a  future 
sense,  and  denotes  uncertainty  signified  by  the  conjunct- 
tion  "unless, "agreeably  to  rule  xix.  and.  th«  notes. 

"Good  works  being  neglected,  devotion  is  false." 
Good  works  being  neglected,  being  independent  of  the 


203  ENGLISH    ORAMMAR. 

rest  of  the  pntence,  is  the  case  absolute,  according  to  the 
fifth  note  ofRULE  i.  Devotion  is  a  common  substantive. 
(Repeat  the  member,  person^  and  case.)  Is  is  an  irregular 
verb  neuter.  (Repeat  the  mood,  tense,  person,  Sfc)  False 
is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state,  and  belongs  to  its 
substantive  "devotion"  understood,  agreeably  to  rule 
VIII.  which  says,  &c. 

"The  emperor,  Marcus  Aurelius,  was  a  wise  and  vir- 
tuous prince." 

The  is  the  definite  article.  Emperor  is  a  common  sub- 
stantive, of  the  masculine  gender,  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  Marcus 
.iurelius  is  a  proper  name  or  substantive,  and  in  the  no- 
minative case,  because  it  is  put  in  apposition  with  the 
substantive  "emperor,"  agreeably  to  the  first  note  of  rule 
X.  Was  is  an  irre^lar  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood, 
imperfect  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  its  nominative  case  "emperor."  A  is  the  indefinite 
article.  Wise  is  an  adjective,  and  belongs  to  its  substan- 
tive "prince."  And  is  a  copulative  conjunction.  Virtuous 
is  an  adjective,  and  belong,  &c.  Prince  is  a  common 
substantive,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  agreeably  to  the 
fourth  note  of  rule  xi, 

"To  err  is  human." 
To  err,  is  the  infinitive  mood,  and  the  nominative  case 
to  the  verb  "is."  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indica- 
tive mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular, 
agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  "to  err,"  agreeably  to 
note  1,  undar  itirXiE  the  first.  Huniufb  is  ttu  u.dj^«-tiT^, 
and  belongs  to  its  substantive  **nature"  understood,  ac- 
cording to  rule  VIII.  which  says,  &c. 

"To  countenance  pei-sons  who  are  guilty  of  bad  actions, 
is  scarcely  one  remove  from  actually  committing 
them." 
To  countenance  persons  who  are  guilty  of  bad  actions. 
is  part  of  a  sentence,  which  is  the  nominative  case  to  the 
verb  "is."     Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  &c.  agreeing 
wiih  the  aforementioned  part  of  a  sentence,  as  its  nomi- 
native case,  agreeably  to  note  1,  under  rule  the  first. 
Scarcely  is  an  advei'b.    One  is  a  numeral  adjective  agree- 


SYNfAX.  203 

ing  with  its  substantive  * 'remove."  Remove  is  a  com- 
mon substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third  person, 
the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  a^ee- 
ably  to  the  fourth  note  of  rule  xi.  From  is  a  preposition. 
Committing  is  the  present  participle  of  the  regular  active 
verb  "to  commit."  Them  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the 
third  person,  the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective 
case,  governed  by  the  participle  "committing,"  agreeably 
to  RULE  XIV.  which  says,  &c. 

^'Let  me  proceed." 

This  sentence,  according  to  the  statement  of  gramma- 
rians in  general,  is  in  the  imperative  mood,  of  the  first 
person,  and  the  singular  number.  The  sentence  may, 
however,  be  analyzed  in  the  following  manner.  Let  is 
an  irregular  verb  active,  in  the  imperative  mood,  of  the 
second  person,  the  plural  number,  and  agrees  with  its 
nominative  case  "you"  understood:  as,  "do  you  let." 
Me  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  singu- 
lar number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the 
active  verb  "let,"  agreeably  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c. 
Proceed  is  a  regular  verb  neuter,  in  the  infinitive  mood, 
governed  by  the  preceding  verb  "let,"  according  to  rule 
XII.  which  says,  &c. 

"Living  expensively  and  luxuriously  destroys  health.^ 
By  living  frugally  and  temperately,  health  is  preserved." 

Living  expensively  and  luxuriously^  is  the  nominative 
case  to  the  verb  "destroys,"  agreeably  to  note  1,  under 
RULE  I.  Living  frugcdly  and  temperately,  is  a  substan- 
tive phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  prepo- 
sition *'by,"  according  to  note  2,  under  rule  xxv. 


The  preceding  specimens  of  parsing,  if  carefully  stu- 
died by  the  learner,  seem  to  be  sufficiently  explicit,  to 
enable  him  to  comprehend  the  nature  of  this  employ- 
ment; and  sufficiently  diversified,  to  qualify  him,  in 
other  exercises,  to  point  out  and  apply  the  remaiftiug 
Kules,  both  principal  and  subordinate. 


{    204    ) 

PART  IV. 
PROSODY. 

Prosody  consists  of  two  parts:  the  former  teaches 
the  true  pronunciation  of  words,  comprising  ac- 
cent, QUANTITY,  EMPHASIS,  PAUSE,  and  TONE;  and 
the  latter,  the  laws  af  versification. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


Section  1.   Of  Accent. 

Accent  is  the  laying  of  a  peculiar  stress  of  the 
voice,  on  a  certain  letter  or  syllable  in  a  word,  that 
it  may  be  better  heard  than  the  rest,  or  distinguished 
from  them:  as,  in  the  word  presume,  the  stress  of  the 
voice  must  be  on  the  letter  w,  and  second  syllable, 
sume,  which  take  the  accent. 

As  words  may  be  formed  of  a  diiferent  number  of  syl- 
lables, from  one  to  eight  or  nine,  it  was  necessary  to  have 
some  peculiar  mark  to  distinguish  words,  from  mere  sylla- 
bles; otherwise  speech  would  be  only  a  continued  succes- 
sion of  syllables,  without  conveying  ideas;  for,  as  words 
are  the  marks  of  ideas,  any  confusion  in  the  marks,  must 
cause  the  same  in  the  ideas  for  which  they  stand.  It  was 
therefore  necessary,  that  the  mind  should  at  once  per- 
ceive what  number  ot  syllables  belongs  to  each  word,  in 
utterance.  This  might  be  done  by  a  perceptible  pause 
at  the  end  of  each  word  in  speaking,  as  we  form  a  cer- 
tain distance  between  them  m  writnig  and  printing. — 
But  this  would  make  discourse  extremely  tedious;  and 
though  it  might  render  words  distinct,  would  make  tlie^ 


Aetent.3  prosody.  ^5 

meaning  of  sentences  confused.  Syllables  ihl^ht  also  be 
sufficiently  distinguished  by  a  certain  elevation  or  de* 
pression  of  voice  upon  one  syllable  of  each  word,  which 
was  the  practice  of  some  nations.  But  the  English 
tonffue  has,  for  this  purpose,  adopted  a  mark  of  the 
<?asiest  and  simplest  kind,  which  is  called  accent,  and 
which  effectually  answers  the  end. 

Every  word  in  our  language,  of  more  than  one  syllable, 
has  one  of  them  distiliguished  from  the  rest  in  this  man 
ner;  and  some  writers  assert,  that  every  monosyllalale  of 
two  or  more  letters,  has  one  of  its  letters  tnus  distinguished. 

Accent  is  either  principal  or  secondary.  The  principal 
accent  is  tha:t  whicn  necessarily  distinguishes  one  sylla- 
ble in  a  word  from  the  rest.  The  secondary  accent  is  that 
litress  w  hich  we  may  occasionally  place  upon  another  syl- 
lable, besides  that  which  has  the  pnncipal  accent;  in  ordler 
to  pronounce  every  part  of  the  word  more  distinctly,  for- 
cibly^ and  harmoniously:  thus,  "Complaisant,  caravan," 
and  "violin,"  have  frequently  an  accent  on  the  first  as 
well  as  on  the  last  syllable,  though  a  somewhat  less  forci- 
ble one.  The  same  may  be  observed  of  "Repartee,  referee, 
privateer,  domineer,"  &c.  But  it.must  be  observed,  that 
though  an  accent  is  allowed  on  the  first  syllable  of  these 
words,  it  is  by  no  means  necessary;  they  may  all  be  pro- 
nounced with  one  accent,  and  tlrnt  on  the  last  syllable, 
without  the  least  deviation  from  propriety. 

As  emphasis  evidently  points  out  the  most  significanrt 
word  in  a  sentence;  so,  wnere  other  reasons  do  not  for- 
bid, the  accent  always  dwells  W'ith  greatest  force  on  that 
part  of  the  word  which,  from  its  importance,  the  hearer 
nas  always  the  greatest  occasion  to  observe:  and  this  is 
necessarily  the  root  or  body  of  the  word.  But  as  harmony 
df  termination  frequently  attracts  the  accent  from  the  root 
to  the  branches  of  words,  so  th^  first  and  most  natural 
law  of  accentuation  seems  to  operate  less  in  fixing  the 
stress  thaa  any  other.  Our  own  Saxon  terminations,  in- 
deed, with  perfect  uniformity,  leave  the  principal  part 
of  the  word  in  quiet  possession  of  what  seems  its  lawful 
property;  but  Latin  and  Greek  terminations,  of  which 
oar  language  is  full,  assume  a  right  of  preserving  ttieir 
original  accent,  and  subject  almost  every  word  tiiey  be* 
«tow  upon  us  to  their  own  classical  laws. " 
S 


206  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [Scct.  1. 

Accent,  therefore,  seems  to  be  regulated  in  a  great 
measure  by  etymology.  In  words  from  the  Saxon,  the 
accent  is  generally  on  the  root;  in  words  from  the 
learned  languages,  it  is  generally  on  the  termination; 
and  if  to  these  we  add  the  diiFerent  accent  we  lay  on 
some  words,  to  distinguish  them  from  others,  we  seem 
to  have  the  three  great  principles  of  accentuation; 
namely,  the  radical,  the  terminational,  and  the  distinc- 
tive. The  radical:  as,  "Love,  lovely,  loveliness;"  the 
terminational:  as,  "Harmony,  harmonious;"  the  distinc- 
tive: as,  '^Convert,  to  convert." 

ACCENT  ON' DISSYLLABLES. 

Words  of  two  syllables  have  necessarily  one  of  them 
accented,  and  but  one.  It  is  true,  for  the  sake  of  em- 
phasis, we  sometimes  lay  an  equal  stress  upon  two  sue 
cessive  syllables:  as,  **i)i-rect,  some-times;"  but  when 
these  words  are  pronounced  alone,  they  have  never  more 
than  one  accent.  The  word  *'a-men,"  is  the  only  word 
which  is  pronounced  with  two  accents  when  alone. 

Of  dissyllables,  formed  by  affixing  a  termination,  the 
former  syllable  is  commonly  accented:  as,  '^Childish, 
kingdom,  detest,  acted,  toilsome,  lover,  scojQfer,  fairer, 
foremost,  zealous,  fulness,  meekly,  artist." 

Dissyllables  formed  by  prefixing  a  syllable  to  the  ra- 
dical word,  have  commonly  the  accent  on  the  latter:  as, 
^'To  beseem,  to  bestow,  to  return." 

Of  dissyllables,  which  are  at  once  nouns  and  verbs, 
the  verb  has  commonly  the  accent  on  the  latter,  and  the 
lioun  on  the  former  syllable:  as,  "To  cement,  a  cement; 
to  contract,  a  contract;  to  presage,  a  presage." 

This  rule  has  many  exceptions.  Though  verbs  seldom 
have  their  accent  on  the  former,  yet  nouns  often  have  it 
on  the  latter  syllable:  as,  "Delight,  perfume."  Those 
jiouns  which,  in  the  common  order  of  language,  must  have 
preceded  the  verbs,  often  transmit  their  accent  to  the  verbs 
they  form,  and  inversely.  Thus,  the  noun  "w^ter"  must 
have  preceded  the  verb  "to  w^ter,"  as  the  verb  "to  cor- 
rcsp6nd,"  must  have  preceded  the  noun  "correspondent:" 
ana  "to  pursue"  claims  priority  to  "pursuit."  So  that 
we  may  conclude,  wherever  verbs  deviate  from  the  rule? 


Accent.]  prosooy.  20T 

it  is  seldom  by  chance,   and  generally  in  those  words 
only  where  a  superior  law  of  accent  takes  place. 

All  dissyllables  ending  in  y, our, ow,  le,  ish,  ck,  ter,  age^ 
en,  eh  as,  "Cranny,  labour,  willow,  wallow;"  except 
**all6w,  avow,  endow,  below,  bestow;"  "battle,  banisb^ 
cambric,  batter,  courage,  fasten,  quiet;"  accent  the  for- 
mer syllable. 

Dissyllable  nouns  in  cr,  as,  'K^knker,  blitter,"  have 
tlie  accent  on  the  former  sellable. 

Dissyllable  verbs,  terminating  in  a  consonant  and  c 
final,  as,  "Comprise,  escape;"  or  having  a  diphthong  in 
the  last  syllable;  as,  "Appease,  reveal;"  or  ending  in  two 
consonants;  as,  "Attend;"  have  the  accents  on  the  latter 
syllable. 

"  Dissyllable  nouns,  having  a  diphthong  in  the  latter  syl- 
lable, have  commonly  their  accent  on  tSe  latter  syllable; 
as,  "Applause;"  except  some  words  in  ain:  as,  "Villain, 
curtain,  mountain." 

Dissyllables  that  have  two  vowels,  which  are  separated 
in  the  pronunciation,  have  always  the  accent  on  the  first 
syllable:  as,  "Lion,  riot,  quiet,  liar,  rtiin;"  except 
"create." 


ACCENT    ON   TRISYLLABLES. 


Trisyllables  formed  by  adding  a  termination,  or  prefix- 
ing a  syllable,  retain  the  accent  of  the  radical  word:  as, 
**L6veliness,  tenderness,  contemner,  wagoner,  physical, 
bespatter,  commenting,  commending,  assurance." 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ous,  al,  ion:  as,  "arduous,  capi- 
tal, mention,"  accent  the  first. 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ce,  ent,  and  ate,  accent  the  first 
syllable:  as,  "Countenance,  continence,  Armament,  im- 
minent, elegant,  propagate;"  unless  they  are  derived 
from  words  having  the  accent  on  the  las<t:  as,  **Conni- 
vance,  acquaintance;"  and  unless  the  middle  syllable 
has  a  vowel  before  two  consonants:   as,  "Promulgate." 

Trisyllables  ending  iny,  as,  "entity,  specify,  liberty, 
victory,  subsidy,"  commonly  accent  the  first  syllable. 

Trisyllables  ending  in  re  or  /e,  accent  the  first  sylla- 
ble: as,  "Legible,  theatre;"  except  ''Disciple,"  and 
9ome  words  which  have  a  preposition:  as,  * 'Example, 
indenture." 


208  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  [Scct.    J* 

Trisyllables  ending  in  mle,  commonlj  accent  the  first 
syllable:  as,  "Plenitude,  habitude,  rectitude." 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ator,  have  the  accent  on  the 
middle  syllable:  as,  '^Spectator,  creator,"  &c.:  except 
**6rator,  senator,  barrator,  legator." 

Trisyllables  which  have  in  the  middle  syllable  a  diph* 
thong,  as,  "Endeavour;"  or  a  vowel  before  two  con so^- 
nants:  as,  ''Domestic;"  accent  the  middle  syllable. 

Trisyllables  that  have  their  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
are  commonly  French:  as,  "Acquiesce,  repartee,  maga- 
zine;" or  they  are  words  formed  by  prefixing  one  or  two 
syllables  to  a  long  syllable:  as,  "Immature,  overcharge." 


ACCENT    ON    POLYSYLLABLES. 


Polysyllables,  or  words  of  more  than  three  syllables^ 
generally  follow  the  accent  of  the  words  from  which  they 
are  derived:  as,  "arrogating,  continency,  incontinently, 
commendable,  communicabFeness," 

Words  ending  in  ator,  have  the  accent  generally  on  the 
penultimate,  or  last  syllable  but  one:  as,  "Emendator^ 
gladiator,  equivocator,  prevaricator." 

Words  ending  in  /e,  commonly  have  the  accent  on  the 
first  syllable:  as^  '*amicable,  despicable:"  unless  the 
second  syllable  has  a  vowel  before  two  consonants:  as, 
'^Combustible,  condemnable." 

Words  ending  in  ion,  ous,  and  ty,  have  their  accent  on 
the  antepenultimate,  or  last  syllable  but  two:  as,  "Sal- 
vation, victorious,  activity." 

Words  which  end  in  ia,  io,  and  cal,  have  the  accent  on 
the  antepenult:  as,  "Cyclopaedia,  punctilio,  despotical." 

The  rules  respecting  accent,  are  not  advanced  as  com-^ 
plete  or  infallible:  they  are  merely  proposed  as  useful. 
Almost  every  rule  of  every  language  has  its  exceptions; 
and,  in  English,  as  in  otlier  tongues,  much  must  be 
learned  by  example  and  authority. 

It  may  be  further  observed,  that  though  the  syllable  on 
which  the  principal  accent  is  placed,  is  nxed  and  certain, 
yet  we  may,  and  do,  frequently  make  the  secondary  prin- 
cipal, and  the  principal  secondary:  thus,  "Caravan,  com- 
plaisant, violin,  repartee,  referee,  privateer,  domineer,'* 
may  all  have  the  greater  stress  on  the  first,  and  the  les? 


Quantity.]  prosody.  209 

on  the  last  syllable,  without  any  violent  offence  to  the 
ear:  nay,  it  may  be  asserted,  that  the  principal  accent  on 
the  first  syllable  of  these  words,  and  none  at  ail  on  the 
last,  though  certainly  improper,  has  nothing  in  it  grating 
or  discordant;  but  placing  an  accent  on  the  second  syllable 
of  these  words  would  entirely  derange  them,  and  produce 
great  harshness  and  dissonance.  The  same  observations 
may  be  applied  to  ''demonstration,  lamentation,  provo- 
cation, navigator,  propagator,  alligator,"  and  every  simi- 
lar word  in  the  language. 

Section  2.     Cf  Quantity. 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  that  time  which  is 
occupiecl  in  pronouncing  it.    It  is  considered  as  long 

or   SHORT. 

A  vowel  or  syllable  is  long,  when  the  accent  is  on 
the  vowel;  which  occasions  it  to  be  slowly  joined  in 
pronunciation  with  the  following  letters:  as,  **Fall, 
Dale,  mood,  hduse,  feature." 

A  syllable  is  short,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  con- 
sonant; which  occasions  the  vowel  to  be  quickly  join- 
ed to  the  succeeding  letter:  as, ''ant,  bonnet,  hunger." 

A  long  syllable  generallj^  requires  double  the  time 
of  a  short  one  in  pronouncing  it;  thus,  **Mate"  and 
**N6te"  should  be  pronounced  as  slowly  again  as 
*^Mat"and*^Not." 

Unaccented  syllables  are  generally  short:  as,  "ad- 
mire, boldness,  sinner."  But  to  this  rule  there  are 
many  exceptions:  as,  '*also,  exile,  gangrene,  timpTre, 
foretaste,"  &c. 

When  the  accent  is  on  a  consonant,  the  syllable  is 
often  more  or  less  short,  as  it  ends  with  a  single  conso- 
nant, or  vvith  more  than  one:  as,  "Sadly,  robber;  persist, 
m6.tchless." 

When  the  accent  is  on  a  semi-vowel,  the  time  of  the 
syllable  may  be  protracted,  by  dwelling  upon  the  semi- 
vowel: as,  ^'Cur',  can',  fulfil':"  but  when  the  accent 
falls  on  a  mute,  the  syllable  cannot  be  lengthened  in  thts 
same  manner:  as,  "Bubble,  captain,  totter." 

The  quantity  of  vowels  has,  in  some  measure,  beeu 
S  2 


£10  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Scct.   2. 

considered  under  the  first  part  of  grammar,  which  treats^ 
of  the  different  sounds  of  the  letters;  and  therefore  we 
shall  dismiss  tl»is  subject  with  a  few  general  rules  and 
observations. 

1st,  All  vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the 
terminations  tc,  io,  and  ion,  preceded  by  a  single  conso- 
nant, are  pronounced  long:  as,.  "Regalia,  folio,  adhesion, 
explosion,  confusion:"  except  the  vowel  i,  which  in  that 
situation  is  short:  as,  "Militia,  punctilio,  decision,  con- 
trition." The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  seem  to  be 
"Discretion,  battalion,  gladiator,  national,  and  rational." 

2d,  All  vowels  that  immediately  precede  the  termina- 
tions ity  and  ety,  are  pronounced  long:  as,  "Deity,  piety, 
spontaneity."  But  it  one  consonant  precedes  these  ter- 
minations, every  preceding  apcented  vowel  is  short; 
except  w,  and  the  a  in  "scar9ity,"  and  **rarity;"  as, 
* 'Polarity,  severity,  divinity,  curiosity; — impunity."" 
Even^  "{i  before  two  consonants  contracts  itself:  aSy 
^'Curvity,  taciturnity,"  &c. 

3d,  Vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the  ter- 
minations ic  and  ica/,  preceded  by  a  single  consonant,  are 
pronounced  short:  thus,  "Satanic,  pathetic,  elliptic,  har- 
monic," have  the  vowel  short;  while  "Tunic,  runic, 
cubic,''  have  the  accented  vowel  long:  and  '*pFanatical, 
f>oetical,  levitical,  canonical,"  have  tne  vowel  short;  but 
'^Cubical,  musical,"  &c.  have  the  u  long. 

4th,  The  vowel  in  the  antepenultimate  syllable  of  words^ 
with  the  following  terminafionsjis  always  pronounced  short. 

toqny;  as,  obloquy.  parous^  as,  oviparous. 

strophe;  as,  apostroplie.  eracy;  as,  aristocracy. 

meter;  as,  barometer.  gony;.  as,  cosmogony. 

gonal;  as,  diagonal.  phony;  as,  symphony.. 

'  vorotls;  as,  camrt^orous.  nomy;  as,  astronomy^ 

ferous;  as,  somniferous.  ferny;  as,  anatomy. 

Jluous;  as,  superfluous.  pcithy;  as,  antipatny. 

fluent;  as,  mellifluent. 

As  no  utterance  \\4iich  is  void  of  proportion,  can  be- 
a^greeable  to  the  ear;  and  as  quantity,  or  proportion  of 
time  in  utterance,  greatly  depends  on  a  due  attention  ta 
the  accent;,  it  is  absolutely  necessarv  for  every  person 
who  would  attain  a  just  and  pleasing  delivery,  to  be  mas- 
ter of  that  point.    «Sfee  this  section  in  the  Octavo  Grammar^ 


Empha8i8.3  pnosoDr.  211 

Section  3.     Of  Emphasis. 

By  emphasis  is  meant  a  stronger  and  fuller  sound  of 
voice,  by  which  we  distinguish  some  word  or  words 
on  which  we  design  to  lay  particular  stress,  and  to 
show  how  they  affect  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Somcr 
times  the  emphatic  words  must  be  distinguished  by  a 
particular  tone  of  voice,  as  well  as  by  a  greater  stress. 

On  the  rigiit  management  of  the  emphasis  depends  the 
life  of  pronunciation.  If  no  emphasis  be  placed  on  any 
words,  not  only  will  discourse  be  rendered  heavy  and 
lifeless,  but  the  meaning  often  left  ambiguous.  If  the 
emphasis  be  placed  wrong,  we  shall  pervert  and  confound 
the  meaning  wholly.  To  give  a  common  instance:  such 
a  simple  question  as  this,  **Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day?*' 
is  capable  of  no  fewer  than  four  different  acceptations, 
according  as  the  emphasis  is  differently  placed  on  the 
*vroids.  If  it  be  pronounced  thus:  '-'Do  you  ride  to  town 
to-day?"  the  answer  may  naturally  be,  "No,  we  send  a 
servant  in  our  stead."  If  thus:  -'Do  you  ride  to  town 
to-day?"  answer,  "No,  we  intend  to  walk."  **Do  you 
ride  to  town  to-day?"  "No,  we  ride  into  the  country." 
'*Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day?^^  '*No,  but  we  shall  to- 
morrow." In  like  manner,  in  solemn  discourse,  Ae  whole 
force  and  beauty  of  an  expression  often  depend  on  the 
enu^hatic  word;  and  we  may  present  to  the  hearers  quite 
different  views  of  the  same  sentiment,  by  placing  the  em- 
phasis diiTerently.  In  the  following  words  of  our  Saviour, 
observe  in  what  different  lights  liie  tliought  is  placed,  ac- 
cording as  the  words  are  pronounced.  "Judas,  betrayest 
4hou  tl\e  son  of  man  with  a  kiss?"  ^'Betrayest  thou,^' 
makes  t'ae  reproach  turn  on  the  infiimy  of  treachery. 
"Betrayest  ihoii^^^  makes  it  rest  upon  Judas's  connexion 
with  his  n\aster.  "Betrayest  thou  the  son  ofman,^^  rests 
it  upon  our  Saviour's  personal  character  and  eminence. 
'^Betrayest  thou  the  son  of  man  with  a  kiss?^''  turns  it 
upon  his  prostituting  the  signal  of  peace  and  friendship 
to  the  purpose  of  destruction. 

The  emphasis  often  lies  on  the  word  that  asks  a  (jues- 
tion:  as, ''f^/io  said  so?"  "J^F/imwill  become?"  ''ffliai 
shall  I  Aq}''' ''Whither  shall  I  go?"  "^% dost  thou  weep?'* 


S12    ^  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Sect.   3, 

And  when  two  words  are  set  in  contrast,  or  in  opposition 
to  one  another,  they  are  both  emphatic:  as,  "He  is  the 
l}/rant,  not  theVa/Aer,  of  his  people;"  "His  subjects /ea/- 
him,  but  they  do  not  love  him." 

Some  sentences  are  so  full  and  comprehensive,  that  al- 
most every  word  is  emphatical:  as,  "Ye  hills  and  dales, 
ye  rivers,  woods,  and  plains:"  or,  as  that  pathetic  expos- 
tulation in  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel,  "Wh}^  will  ye  die!" 
In  the  latter  short  sentence,  every  word  is  emphatical; 
and  on  whichever  word  we  lay  the  emphasis,  whether 
on  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth,  it  strikes  out  a  dif- 
ferent sense,  and  opens  a  new  subject  of  moving  expos- 
tulation. 

As  accent  dignifies  the  syllable  on  which  it  is  laid,  and 
makes  it  more  distinguished  by  the  ear  than  the  rest;  so 
emphasis  ennobles  the  word  to  which  it  belongs,  and  pre- 
sents it  in  a  stronger  light  to  the  understanding.  Were 
there  no  accents,  words  would  be  resolved  into  their  ori- 
ffinal  syllables:  were  there  no  emphasis,  sentences  would 
be  resolved  into  their  original  words;  and,  in  this  case, 
the  hearer  would  be  under  the  painful  necessity,  first,  of 
making  out  the  words,  and  afterwards,  their  meaning. 

Emphasis  is  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  complex.  Simple, 
when  it  serves  to  point  out  only  the  plain  meaning  of  any 
proposition;  complex,  when,  besides  the  meaning,  it  marks 
also  some  aftection  or  emotion  of  the  mind;  or  gives  a 
meaning  to  words,  which  they  would  not  have  in  their 
usual  acceptation.  In  the  former  case,  emphasis  is  scarce- 
ly more  than  a  stronger  accent,  with  little  or  no  change 
ef  tone;  when  it  is  complex,  besides  force,  there  is  always 
superadded  a  manifest  change  of  tone. 

The  following  sentence  contains  an  example 'of  simple 
emphasis:  '*And  Nathan  said  to  David,  Thou  art  the 
man."  The  emphasis  on  thou,  serves  only  to  point  out 
the  meaning  of  the  speaker.  But  in  the  sentence  which 
follows,  we  perceive  an  emotion  of  the  speaker  super- 
added to  the  simple  meaning:  "Why  will  ye  die!" 

As  the  emphasis  often  falls  on  words  in  dift'erent  parts 
of  the  same  sentence,  so  it  is  frequently  required  to  be 
continued,  with  a  little  variation,  on  two,  and  sometimes 
three  words  together.  Tiie  following  sentence  exempli" 
fies  both  the  parts  of  this  position;  '*lf  you  seek  to  make 


Emphasis^  prosody  SI  5 

one  rich,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores^  but  to  dimmish 
his  desiresy  Emphasis  may  be  further  distinguished,  into 
the  weaker  a«d  the  stronger  emphasis.  In  the  sentence, 
'^Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  the  constitution;'' 
we  perceive  more  force  on  the  word  strengtheiu  than  on 
any  other;  though  it  is  not  equal  to  the  stress  which  we 
apply  to  the  word  indifferent,  in  the  following  sentence. 
•'Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  even  an  indifferent 
constitution."  It  is  also  proper  to  remark,  that  the  words 
exercise,  temperance,  comtiliition,  in  the  last  example  but 
one,  are  pronounced  with  greater  force,  than  the  parti- 
cles coid  and  the;  and  yet  those  words  cannot  properly 
be  called  emphatieal:  for  the  stress  that  is  laid  on  them, 
is  no  more  than  sufficient  to  convey  distinctly  the  mean- 
ing of  each  word. — From  these  observations  it  appears, 
that  the  smaller  parts  of  speech,  namely,  the  articles,  con- 
junctions, prepositions,  &c.  are,  in  "general,  obscurely 
and  feebly  expressed;  that  the  substantives,  verbs,  and 
more  significant  words,  are  firmly  and  distinctly  pronoun- 
ced; and  that  the  emphatieal  words,  those  which  mark 
the  mearung  of  a  phrase,  are  pronounced  with  peculiar 
stress  and  energy,  though  varied  according  to  the  degree 
of  their  importance. 

Emphasis,  besides  its  other  offices,  is  the  great  regu- 
lator of  quantity.    Though  the  quantity  of  our  syllables 
is  fixed,  in  words  separately  pronounced,  yet  it  is  muta- 
ble, when  these  words  are  ranged  in  sentences;  the  long 
jaeing  changed  into  short,  the  short  into  long,  according 
to  the  importance  of  the  words  with  regard  to  meaning: 
and  as  it  is  by  emphasis  only,  that  the  meaning  can  be 
pointed  out,  emphasis  must  be  the  regulator  of  tne  quan- 
tity.   A  few  examples  will  make  this  point  very  evident. 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — and  learn  the  secret  power,  &:c. 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — and  thou  alone  shalt  hear — 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — in  spite  of  them  shalt  hear — 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — though  not  behold  the  fair — 
In  the  first  of  these  instances,  the  words  pleased  and 
hear,  being  equally  emphatieal,  are  both  long;  whilst  the 
two  intermediate  words,  thou  and  shalt,  being  rapidly 
passed  over,  as  the  sense  demands,  are  reduced  to  a 
short  quantity. 

In  the  second  instance,  the  word  Mori  by  being  the  most 


£14  l5N(^trSH  GRjmMAR.  [Scct.    5, 

important,  obtains  the  chief,  or  rather  the  sole  emphasis; 
and  thus,  it  is  not  only  restored  to  its  natural  long  quan- 
tity, but  obtains  from  emphasis  a  still  greater  degree  of 
length,  than  when  prono^inced  in  its  separate  state.  Thi>s 
greater  degree  of  length,  is  compensated  by  the  dimimi- 
Bon  of  quantity  in  tlie  words  pleased  and  hear,  which  are 
sounded  shorter  than  in  the  preceding  instance.  The 
word  shall  still  continues  short.  Here  we  may  also  ob- 
serve, that  though  thou  is  long  in  the  first  part  of  the  verso. 
it  becomes  short  when  repeated  in  the  second,  on  account 
of  the  more  forcible  emphasis  belonging  to  the  word 
aldne,  which  follows  it. 

In  the  third  instance,  the  word  shalt  having  the  em- 
phasis, obtains  a  long  quantity.  And  though  it  is  impos- 
sible to  prolong  the  sound  of  this  word,  as  it  ends  m  a 
pure  mute,  yet  in  this,  as  in  all  similar  instances,  the 
additional  quantity  is  to  be  mad«  out  by  a  rest  of  the 
voice,  proportioned  to  the  importance  of  the  word.  In 
this  instance,  we  may  also  observe,  that  the  word  shalt^ 
repeated  in  the  second  part  of  the  line,  is  reduced  again 
to  a  short  quantity. 

In  the  fourth  instance,  the  word  hear  placed  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  word  behold,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  line^ 
obtains  from  the  sense  the  chief  emphasis,  and  a  propor- 
tionate length.  The  words  thou  ami  shall,  are  again  re- 
duced to  short  quantities;  and  the  word  pleased  lends 
some  of  the  time  which  it  possessed,  to  the  more  import- 
ant word  hear. 

From  these  instances,  it  is  evident,  that  the  quantity 
of  our  vsyllables  is  not  fixed;  but  governed  by  emphasis. 
To  observe  a  due  measurement  of  time,  on  all  occasions, 
is  doubtless  very  difficult;  but  by  instruction,  attention. 
and  practice,  the  difficulty  may  be  overcome. 

Emphasis  changes,  not  only  the  quantity  of  words  and 
syllables,  but  also,  in  particular  cases,  the  seat  of  the  ac- 
cent.   This  is  demonstrable  from  the  following  examples. 

"He  shall  increase,  but  I  shall  c/ecrease."  "There  is  a 
difference  between  giving  and  /djrgiving."  "In  this  spe- 
cies of  composition,  jo/awsibility  is  mucn  more  essential 
than  jorobabdity."  In  these  examples,  the  emphasis  re- 
quires the  accent  to  be  placed  on  syllables,  to  which  it 
does  not  commonly  belong. 


Pau8es.3  PROSODY.  215 

In  order  to  acquire  the  proper  management  of  the  em- 
phasis, the  great  rule,  and  indeed  the  only  rule  possible 
to  be  given,  is,  that  the  speaker  or  reader  study  to  attain 
a  just  conception  of  the  force  and  spirit  of  the  sentiments 
which  he  is  to  pronounce.  For  to  lay  the  emphasis  with 
exact  propriet_^,  is  a  constant  exercise  of  ^ooa  sense  and 
attention.  It  is  far  from  being  an  inconsiderable  attain- 
ment. It  is  one  of  the  greatest  trials  of  a  true  and  just 
taste;  and  must  arise  from  feeling  delicately  ourselves, 
and  from  juddng  accurately,  of  what  is  fittest  to  strike 
the  feelings  oi  others. 

There  is  one  error,  against  which  it  is  particularly  pro- 
|)er  to  caution  the  learner;  namely,  that  of  multiplying 
emphatical  words  too  much.  It  is  only  by  a  prudent  re 
serve  in  the  use  of  them,  tliat  we  can  give  them  any 
weight.  If  they  recur  too  often;  if  a  speaker  or  reader 
attempts  to  render  every  thing  which  he  expresses  of  high 
importance,  by  a  multitude  of  strong  emphases,  we  soon 
learn  to  pay  little  regard  to  them.  To  crowd  every  sen- 
tence with  emphatical  words,  is  like  crowding  all  tlie 
pagesof  a  book  witli  Italic  characters,  which,  as  to  the  ef- 
fect, is  just  the  same  as  to  use  no  such^distinctions  at  all. 

Section  4.     Of  Pauses, 

Pauses  or  rests,  in  speaking  and  reading,  are  a  total 
cessation  of  the  voice,  during  a  perceptible,  and,  in 
many  cases,  a  measurable  space  of  time. 

Pauses  are  equally  necessary  to  tlie  speaker,  and  the 
hearer.  To  the  speaker,  that  he  may  tate  breath,  with- 
out which  he  cannot  proceed  far  in  delivery;  and  that  he 
may,  by  these  temporary  rests,  relieve  the  organs  of 
speech,  which  otherwise  would  be  soon  tired  by  continued 
action:  to  the  hearer,  that  the  ear  also  may  be  relieved 
from  the  fatigue,  which  it  would  otherwise  endure  from  a 
continuity-  of  sound;,  and  that  the  understanding  may 
have  sufficient  time  to  mark  the  distinction  of  sentences, 
and  their  several  members. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pauses:  first,  emphatical  pauses; 
and  next,  such  as  mark  the  distinctions  oi  the  sense.  An 
emphatical  pause  is  made,  after  something  has  been  said 
oj  peculiar  moment,  and  on  which  we  desire  to  fix  the 


S16  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [Scct.  4,, 

hearer's  attention.  Sometimes,  before  such  a  thin?  is  said, 
we  usher  it  in  with  a  pause  of  this  nature.  Such  pauses 
have  the  same  effect  as  a  stron;^  emphasis;  and  are  subject 
to  the  same  rules;  especially  to  the  caution  just  now  given, 
of  not  repeating  them  too  frequently.  For  as  they  excite 
uncommon  attention,  and  of  course  raise  expectation,  if 
the  importance  of  the  matter  is  not  fully  answerable  to  such 
expectation,  they  occasion  disappointment  and  disgusts 

But  the  most  frequent  and  the  principal  use  of  pauses, 
is,  to  mark  the  divisions  of  tlie  sense,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  allow  the  speaker  to  draw  his  breath;  and  the  proper 
and  -delicate  adjustment  of  such  pauses,  is  one  of  the  most 
nice  and  difficult  articles  of  delivery.  In  all  reading,  and 
public  speaking,  the  management  of  the  breath  requires  a 
good  deal  of  care,  so  as  not  to  oblige  us  to  divide  words 
from  one  another,  which  have  so  intimate  a  connexion, 
that  they  ought  to  be  pronounced  with  the  same  breath, 
and  without  the  least  separation.  Many  sentences  are 
miserably  mangled,  and  the  force  of  the  emphasis  totally 
lost,  by  the  divisions  being  made  in  the  wrong  place.  'I'o 
avoid  this,  every  one,  while  he  is  speaking  or  reading, 
"Should  be  very  careful  to  provide  a  full  supply  of  breath 
for  what  he  is  to  utter.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  imagine, 
that  the  breath  must  be  drawn  only  at  the  end  of  a  period, 
when. the  voice  is  allowed  to  fall,  it  may  easily  be  ga- 
thered at  the  intervals  of  the  period,  when  the  voice  is 
only  suspended  for  a  moment;  and,  by  this  management, 
one  may  always  have  a  sufficient  stock  for  carrying  on 
the  longest  sentence,  without  improper  interruptions. 

Pauses  in  reading,  and  public  discourse,  must  be  formed 
upon  the  manner  in  which  we  utter  ourselves  in  ordinary, 
sensible  conversation;  and  not  upon  the  stifFartificial  man- 
ner which  we  acquire,  from  reading  books  according  to  the 
common  punctuation.  It  will  by  no  means  be  sufficient  to 
■attend  to  the  points  used  In  printing;  for  these  are  far  from 
raarkinga//the  pauses  which  ought  to  be  made  in  speaking. 
A  miechanical  attention  to  these  resting-places  has  perhaps 
been  one  cause  of  monotony,  by  leading  the  reader  to  a  sf- 
milar  tone  at  every  stop,  and  a  u  niform  cadence  at  every  pe- 
riod. The  primary  use  of  points  is,  to  assist  the  reader  in 
.<4isceming  the  ^ammatical  construction;  and  it  is  only  as 
a  secondary  object,  that  they  regulate  his  pronunciamft. 


f*auses.5  PROSODY.  21  r 

To  render  pauses  pleasing  and  expressive,  they  must 
•not  only  be  made  in  tne  right  place,  but  also  accompanied 
with  a  proper  tone  of  voice,  by  which  the  nature  of  these 
pauses  IS  intimated;  much  more  than  by  the  length  of 
them,  which  can  seldom  be  exactly  measured.  Sometimes 
it  is  only  a  slight  and  simple  suspension  of  voice  that  is 
proper;  sometimes  a  degree  of  cadence  in  the  voice  is 
required;  and  sometimes  that  peculiar  tone  and  cadence 
v/hich  denote  the  sentence  to  be  finished.  In  all  these 
leases,  we  are  to  regulate  ourselves,  by  attending  to  the 
manner  in  which  nature  teaches  us  to  speak,  \vhen  en- 
gaged in  real  and  earnest  discourse  with  others. 

It  is  a  general  rule,  that  the  suspending  pause  should 
be  used  when  the  sense  is  incomplete;  and  the  closing 
pause-,  when  it  is  finished.  But  there  are  phrases,  in 
which,  though  the  sense  is  not  completed,  the  voice  takes 
the  closing,  rather  than  the  suspenaing  pause;  and  others, 
in  which  the  sentence  finishes  by  the  pause  of  suspension. 

The  closing  pause  must  not  be  confounded  with  that 
fall  of  the  voice,  or  cadence,  with  \vhich  many  readers 
uniformly  finish  a  sentence.  Nothing  is  more  destructive 
of  propriety  and  energy  than  t^is  habit.  The  tones  and 
inflections  of  the  voice  at  the  close  of  a  sentence,  ought 
to  be  diversified,  according  to  the  general  nature  of  the 
discourse,  and  the  particular  construction  and  meaning 
of  the  sentence.  In  plain  narrative,  and  especially  in 
argumentation,  a  small  attention  to  the  manner  in  which 
we  relate  a  fact,  or  maintain  an  argument,  in  conversa- 
tion, will^show,  that  it  is  fiequently  more  proper  to  raise 
the  voice,  than  to  let  it  fall,  at  the  end  of  a  sentence. 
Some  sentences  are  so  constructed,  that  the  last  words 
require  a  stronger  emphasis  than  any  of  the  preceding; 
while  others  admit  of  being  closed  with  a  soft  and  gentle 
sound.  Where  there  is  nothing  in  the  sense  which  re- 
quires the  last  sound  to  be  elevated  or  emphatical,  an 
easy  fall,  sufficient  to  show  that  the  sense  is  finished,  will 
be  proper.  And  in  pathetic  pieces,  especially  those  of 
the  plaintive,  tender,  or  solemn  kind,  the  tone  of  the  pas- 
sion will  often  require  a  still  greater  cadence  of  the  voice. 
The  best  method  of  correcting  a  uniform  cadence,  is  fre- 
quently to  read  select  sentences,  in  which  the  stj^le  is 
pointed,  and  in  which  antitheses  are  frequently  intro- 


S18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  fScct.  5* 

duced:  and  argumentative  pieces,  or  such  as  abound  with 
interrogatives,  or  earnest  exclamation. 

Section  5.  Of  Tones. 

Tones  are  different  both  from  emphasis  and  pauses; 
consisting  in  the  modulation  of  the  voice,  the  notes 
or  variations  of  sound  which  we  employ  in  the  ex- 
pression of  our  sentiments. 

Emphasis  affects  particular  words  and  phrases  with  a 
degree  of  tone  or  inflection  of  the  voice;  but  tones, 
peculiarly  so  called,  affect  sentences,  paragraphs,  and 
sometimes  even  the  whole  of  a  discourse. 

To  show  the  use  and  necessity  of  tones,  we  need  only 
observe,  that  the  mind,  in  communicating  its  ideas,  is  in 
a  continual  state  of  activity,  emotion,  or  agitation,  from 
the  different  effects  which  those  ideas  produce  in  the 
speaker.  Now  the  end  of  such  communication  being,  not 
merely  to  lay  open  the  ideas,  but  al^o  the  different  feel- 
ings which  they  excite  in  him  who  utters  them,  there 
must  be  other  signs  than  words,  to  manifest  those  feel- 
ings; as  words  uttered  in  a  monotonous  manner,  can  re- 
present only  a  similar  state  of  mind,  perfectly  free  from 
all  activity  or  emotion.  As  the  communication  of  thesf 
internal  feelings,  was  of  much  more  consequence  in  our 
social  intercourse,  than  the  mere  conveyance  of  ideas, 
the  Author  of  our  being  did  not,  as  in  that  conveyance, 
leave  the  invention  of  me  language  of  emotion,  to  man; 
but  impressed  it  himself  upon  our  nature  in  the  same 
manner  as  he  has  done  with  regard  to  the  rest  of  the 
animal  world;  all  of  which  express  their  various  feelings, 
by  various  tones.  Ours  indeed,  from  the  superior  rank, 
that  we  hold,  are  in  a  high  degree  more  comprehensive; 
as  there  is  not  an  act  of  the  mind,  an  exertion  of  the 
fancy,  or  an  emotion  of  the  heart,  which  has  not  its  pe- 
culiar tone,  or  note  of  the  voice,  by  which  it  is  to  be 
expressed;  and  which  is  suited  exactly  to  the  degree  of 
internal  feeling.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  proper  use  of  these 
tones,  that  the  life,  spirit,  beauty,  and  harmony  of  de- 
livery consist. 

An  extract  from  the  beautiful  lamentation  of  David  over 
Saul  and  Jonathan,  may  serve  as  an  example  of  what  h?is 


Tones.]  prosody.  219 

been  said  on  this  subject.  "The  beauty  of  Israel  is  slain 
upon  thy  high  places.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen!  Tell 
'it  not  in  Gath;  publish  it  not  in  the  streets  of  Askalon: 
lest  the  daughters  of  the  Philistines  rejoice;  lest  the 
daughters  of  the  uncircumcised  triumph.  Ye  mountains 
of  Gilboa,  let  there  be  no  dew,  nor  rain  upon  you,  nor 
fields  of  offerings;  for  there  the  shield  of  the  mighty  was 
vilely  cast  away;  the  shield  of  Saul,  as  though  he  had 
not  been  anointed  with  oil!"  The  first  of  these  divisions 
expresses  sorrow  and  lamentation;  therefore  the  note  is 
low.  The  next  contains  a  spirited  command,  and  should 
be  pronounced  much  higher.  The  other  sentence,  in 
which  he  makes  a  pathetic  address  to  the  mountains 
where  his  friends  were  slain,  must  be  expressed  in  a  note 
quite  different  from  the  two  former;  not  so  low  as  the 
first,  nor  so  high  as  the  second,  in  a  manly,  firm,  and  yet 
plaintive  tone.* 

This  correct  and  natural  language  of  the  emotions,  is 
not  so  difficult  to  be  attained,  as  most  readers  seem  to 
imagine.  If  we  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  author's  sen- 
timents, as  well  as  into  the  meaning  of  his  words,  we  shall 
not  fail  to  deliver  the  words  in  properly  varied  tones.  For 
there  are  few  people,  who  speak  English  without  a  pro- 
vincial tone,  that  have  not  an  accurate  use  of  emphasis, 
pauses,  and  tones,  when  they  utter  their  sentiments  in 
earnest  discourse:  and  the  reason  that  they  have  not  the 
same  use  of  them,  in  reading  aloud  the  sentiments  of 
others,  may  be  traced  to  the  very  defective  and  errone- 
ous method,  in  which  the  art  of  reading  is  taught;  where- 
by all  the  various,  natural,  expressive  tones  of  speech, 
are  suppressed,  and  a  few  artificial,  unmeaning,  reading 
notes,  are  substituted  for  them. 

But  when  we  recommend  to  readers  an  attention  to 
the  tone  and  language  of  emotions,  we  must  be  understood 
to  do  it  with  proper  limitation.  Moderation  is  necessary 
in  this  point,  as  it  is  in  other  things.  For  when  reading 
becomes  strictly  imitative,  it  assumes  a  theatrical  manner, 
and  must  be  highly  improper,  as  well  as  give  offence  to 
the  hearers;  because  it  is  inconsistent  with  that  delicacy 
and  modesty,  which,  on  all  occasions,  are  indispensable. 

*  Hemes. 


^20  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [Versification* 

CHAPTER  IL 

Of  Versification. 

As  there  ai-e  few  persons  who  do  not  sometimes  read 
poetical  composition,  it  seems  necessary  to  give  the  stu- 
dent some  idea  of  that  part  of  gramra^f.  which  explains 
fhe  principles  of  versification;  that,  in  reading  poetry,  he 
may  be  the  better  able  to  judge  of  its  correctness,  and 
j'^^lish  its  beauties.  When  this  lively  mode  of  exhibiting 
nature  and  sentiment,  is  perfectly  chaste,  it  is  often  found 
to  be  highly  interesting  and  instructive. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  num- 
ber and  variety  of  syllables,  according  to  certain 
laws. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last  sound  of 
one  verse,  to  the  last  sound  or  sellable  of  another. 

Feet  and  pauses  are  the  constituent  parts  of  verse. 
We  shall  consider  these  separately. 

OF    POETICAL    FEET. 

A  certain  number  of  syllables  connected,  form  a  foot. 
They  are  called  /ec/,  because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the 
voice,  as  it  were,  steps  along  through  the  verse,  in  a 
measured  mce;  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  syllable* 
which  mark  this  regular  movement  of  the  voice,  should, 
in  some  manner,  be  distinguished  from  the  others.  Thi&^ 
distinction  was  made  among  the  ancient  Romans,  by  di- 
viding their  syllables  into  long  and  short,  and  ascertaining 
their  quantity  by  an  exact  proportion  of  time  in  soundins 
them;  the  long  bein^  to  tne  short,  as  two  to  one;  and 
the  long  syllables,  bemg  thus  the  more  important,  mark- 
ed the  movement.  In  English,  syllables  are  divided  into^ 
accented  and  unaccented;  and  the  accented  syllables 
being  as  strongly  distinguished  from  the  unaccented,  by 
the  peculiar  stress  of  the  voice  upon  them,  are  equally 
capable  of  marking  the  movement,  and  pointing  out  the 
regular  paces  of  the  voice,  as  the  long  syllables  were  by 
their  quantity,  among  the  Romans. 

When  the  feet  are  formed  by  an  accent  en  vowels^ 
they  are  exactly  of  the  same  nature  as  the  ancient  feet, 


Versification.]  prosody.  221 

and  have  the  same  just  quantity  in  their  syllables.  St^ 
that,  in  this  respect,  we  have  afl  that  the  ancients  had, 
and  something  which  they  had  not.  We  have  in  fact  du- 
plicates of  each  foot,  yet  with  such  a  difference,  as  to 
nt  them  for  different  purposes,  to  be  applied  at  our 
pleg^re. 

E^ry  foot  has,  from  nature,  powers  peculiar  to  itself; 
and  it  is  upon  the  knowledge  and  right  application  xrt' 
these  powers,  that  the  pleasure  and  eftect  of  numbers 
chiefly  depend. 

All  feet  used  in  poetry  consist  either  of  two,  or  of  three 
syllables;  and  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds;  four  of  two 
syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows: 

DISSYLLi^LE.  TRISYLLABLE. 

A  Trochee  -  o  A  Dactyl  -  8  8 

An  Iambus  8  -  An  Amphibrach  8-8 

A  Spondee  -  -  An  Anapaest  8  8- 

A  Pyrrliic  8  8  A  Tribrach  8  8  8 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last 
unaccented:  as,  "Hateful,  pettish." 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the 
last  accented:  as,  "Betray,  consist." 

A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented: 
as,  "The  pale  moon." 

A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented: 
as,  "on  the  tall  tree." 

A  Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two 
latter  unaccented:  as,  < 'Labourer,  possible." 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unac- 
cented; and  the  middle  one  accented:  as,  * 'Delightful, 
domestic." 

An  Anapaest  has  the  two  first  syllables  unaccented, 
and  the  last  accented:  as,  "Contravene,  acquiesce." 

A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented:  as,  *'Nti- 
merable,  conquerable." 

Some  of  these  feet  may  be  denominated  principal  iitti; 
as  pieces  of  poetry  may  be  wholly,  or  chiefly  formed  of 
any  of  them.  Such  are  the  Iambus,  Trochee,'Dactyl,  and 
Anapaest.  The  others  may  be  termed  secondary  feet; 
because  their  chief  use  is  to  diversify  the  numbers,  and 
to  improve  the  verse. 

We  shall  first  explain  the  nature  of  the  principal  feet 
T  2 


SSa  ENGLrsH  GRAMMAR.       fVersificationr 

IAMBIC  verses  may  be  divided  into  several  species, 
according  to  the  number  of  feet  or  syllables  of  which 
they  are  composed. 

1.  The  shortest  form  of  the  English  Iambic  consists  of 
an  Iambus,  with  an  additional  short  syllable:  as. 

Disdaining, 

Complaining, 

Consenting,. 

Repenting. 
We  have  no  poem  of  this  measure,  but  it  may  be  met 
with  in  stanzas.    The  Iambus,  with  this  addition^  coin- 
cides with  the  Amphibrach. 

2.  The  second  form  of  our  Limbic  is  also  too  short  to 
be  continued  through  any  great  number  of  lines.  It  con- 
-sists  of  ^z^jo  Iambuses. 

What  place  is  here! 

What  scenes  appearl 

To  me  the  rose; 

No  longer  glows. 
It  sometimes  takes,  or  may  take,  an  additional  short  syl- 
feble:  as. 

Upon  a  mountain 
Beside  a  fountain. 

3.  The  third  form  consists  of  three  Iambuses. 

In  places  far  or  near, 
Or  famous  or  obscure,         o^ 
Where  wholesome  is  the  air, 
Or  where  the  most  impure. 
It  sometimes  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable:  as, 
Our  hearts  no  longer  languish. 

4.  The  fourth  form  is  made  up  of /ojwr  Iambuses. 

And  may  afcJast  my  weary  age, 
Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage. 

5.  The  fifth  species  of  English  Iambic,  consists  otfive 
Iambuses. 

How  lov'd,  h6w  valu'd  once,  avails-  thee  not, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot: 


Ver«ificationrj  wlosoi>t.  225 

A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee; 
'Tis  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be. 

Be  wise  to-daj,  'tis  madness  to  defer: 
Next  day  the  fatal  precedent  will  plead; 
Thus  on,  till  wisdom  is  pushed  out  of  life. 
This  is  called  the  Heroic  measure.  In  its  simpkst  form 
it  consists  of  five  Iambuses;  but  by  the  admission  of  other 
feet,  as  Trochees,  Dactyls,  Anapaests,  &c.  it  is  capable 
of  many  varieties.    Indeed,  most  of  the  English  common 
measures  may  be  varied  in  the  same  way,  as  well  as  by 
the  different  position  of  their  pauses. 

6.  The  sixth  form  of  our  Iambic  is  commonly  called 
i\it  Jlhxandrine  measure.    It  consists  of  sia?  Iambuses. 

For  thou  art  but  of  dust;  be  humble  and  be  wise. 
The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  introduced  into  heroic 
rhyme;  and  when  used  sparingly,  and  with  judgment, 
occasions  an  agreeable  variety. 

The  seas  shall  waste,  the  skies  in  smoke  decay. 
Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away; 
But  fixM  his  word,  his  saving  pow'r  remains: 
Thy  realm  for  ever  lasts,  thy  own  Messiah  reigvs. 

7.  The  seventh  and  last  form  of  our  Iambic  measure> 
i$  made  up  of  seven  Iambuses^ 

The  Lord  descended  from  above,. 
And  bow'd  the  heavens  high. 

This  was  anciently  written  in  one  line;  but  it  is  now 
broken  into  two;  the  first  containing  four  feet,  and  the 
second  three. 

When  all  thy  mercies,  0  my  God. 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 
Transported  with  the  view,  I'm  lost 

In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 
In  all  these  measures,  the  accents  are  to  be  placed  on  eveN 
syllables;  and  every  line  considered  by  itself,  is,  in  gene- 
ral, more  melodious,  as  this  rule  is  more  strictly  observed.. 

TROCHAIC  verse  is  of  several  kinds. 
1 .  The  shortest  Trochaic  verse  in  our  language,  coa^ 
eists  of  one  Trochee  and  a  long  syllable. 


224  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.       [Vers'ificatioii.' 

Tumfilt  cease, 

Sink  to  peace. 
This  measure  is  defective  in  dignity,  and  can  seldom  be 
used  on  serious  occasions. 

2.  The  second  English  form  of  the  Trochaic  consists 
c^  two  feet;  and  is  likewise  so  brief,  that  it  is  rarely 
Hsed  for  any  very  serious  purpose. 

On  the  m5untain 
By  a  fountain. 

It  sometimes  contains  two  feet  or  trochees,  with  an  ad- 
ditional long  syllable:  as, 

In  the  days  of  old 

Fables  plainly  told. 

3.  The  third  species  consists  of  three  trochees:  as, 

When  our  hearts  are  mourning: 
or  of  three  trochees,  with  an  additional  long  syllable:  as. 
Restless  mortals  toil  for  nought; 
Bliss  in  vain  from  earth  is  sought; 
Bliss,  a  native  of  the  sky, 
Never  wanders.     Mortals,  try; 
There  you  cannot  seek  in  vani; 
For  to  seek  her  is  to  gain. 

4.  The  fourth  Trochaic  species  consists  of  four  tro- 
chees: as. 

Round  us  roars  the  tempest  louder. 
This  form  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable?  as  follows: 

Idle  after  dinner  In  his  chair. 

Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair. 
But  this  measure  is  very  uncommon. 

5.  The  fifth  Trochaic  species  is  likewise  uncominon. 
It  is  composed  of  Jive  trochees. 

All  that  walk  on  fdot  or  ride  in  chariots, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.  The  sixth  form  of  the  English  Trochaic  consists  of 
six  trochees:  as. 

On  a  mduntain,  stretch 'd  beneath  a  hoary  willow, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  view'd  the  rolling  billow. 


Versificition.]  prosody*  5S5 

Tliis  seems  to  be  the  longest  Trochaic  line  that  our 
langua^ijfe  admits. 

In  all  these  Trochaic  measures,  the  accent  is  to  be 
placed  on  the  odd  ayllables. 

The  DACTYLIC  measure  being  very  uncommon,  we 
shall  give  only  one  example  of  one  species  of  it: 
From  the  low  pleasures  of  this  fallen  nature, 
Rise  we  to  hrgher,  &.c.  * 

ANAP^STIC  verses  are  divided  into  several  species. 

1 .  The  shortest  anapaestic  verse  must  be  a  single  ana- 
paest: as, 

Biit  in  vain, 

They  complain. 
This  measure  is,  however,  ambiguous;  for,  by  laying 
the  stress  of  the  voice  on  the  first  and  third  syllables,  we 
might  make  a  Trochaic.  And  therefore  the  first  and  sim- 
plest form  of  our  genuine  Anapaestic  verse,  is  made  up 
of  tufo  Anapaests:  as, 

Biit  his  courage  'gan  fail. 

For  no  arts  could  avail. 
This  form  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable. 

Then  his  courage  'gan  fail  him, 

Far  no  arts  could  avail  him. 

2.  The  second  species  consists  of  three  Anapaests. 

0  ye  woods,  spread  your  branches  apace; 
To  your  deepest  recesses  I  fly; 

1  would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chase; 

I  would  vanish  from  every  eye. 
Tliis  is  a  very  pleasing  measure,  and  much  used,  botli 
in  solemn  and  cheerful  subjects. 

3.  The  third  kind  of  the  English  Anepaestic,  consists 
of  four  Anapaests. 

May  I  govern  my  passions  widi  absolute  sway; 
And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 
This  measure  will  admit  of  a  short  syllable  at  the  end: 
a9,_ 

On  the  warm  cheek  of  youth,  smiles  and  roses  are 
blending. 


S26  ENGLISH  GRATaiwAR.       [Versification. 

The  preceding  are  the  difFerent  kinds  of  the  principal 
feet,  in  their  more  simple  forms.  Thej  are  capable  of 
numerous  variations,  by  the  intermixture  of  those  feet 
with  each  other;  and  by  the  admission  of  the  secondary 
feet. 

We  have  observed,  that  English  verse  is  composed  of 
feet  formed  by  accent;  and  that  when  the  accent  falls  on 
vowels,  the  feet  are  equivalent  to  those  formed  by  quan- 
tity. That  the  student  may  clearly  perceive  this  difler- 
ence,  we  shall  produce  a  specimen  of  each  kind. 

O'er  heaps  of  ruins  stalk'd  the  stately  hind. 
Here  we  see  the  accent  is  upon  the  vowel  in  each  se- 
cond syllable.     In  the  following  line,  we  shall  find  the 
same  Iambic  movement,  but  formed  by  accent  on  conso- 
nants, except  the  last  syllable. 

Then  rustling  crackling,  crashing  th tinder  down. 

Here  the  time  of  the  short  accented  syllables,  is  com- 
pensated by  a  short  pause,  at  the  end  of  each  word  to- 
which  they  belong. 

We  now  proceed  to  show  the  manner  in  which  poetry 
is  varied  and  improved,  by  the  admission  of  secondary 
feet  into  its  composition. 

Murmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night. 
The  first  foot  here  is  a  Dactyl;  the  rest  are  Iambics. 

O'er  mlny  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp. 
This  line  contains  three  Amphibrachs  mixed  with  Iambics. 

Innumerable  before  th'  Almighty's  throne. 
Here,  in  the  second  foot,  we  find  a  Tribrach. 

See  the  bold  youth  strain  up  the  threat'ning  steep. 
In  this  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Trochee;  the  second  a 
genuine  Spondee  by  quantity;  the  third  a  Spondee  by 
accent. 

In  the  following  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Pyrrhic,  the 
3econd  a  Spondee. 

That  on  weak  wings  from  far  pursues  your  flight. 

From  the  preceding  view  of  English  versification,  we 
may  see  what  a  copious  stock  of  materials  it  possesses. 
For  we  are  not  only  allowed  the  use  of  all  the  ancient 


Versification.3  prosody.  9^7 

poetic  feet,  in  our  heroic  measure,  but  vre  have,  as  be  - 
tore  observed,  duplicates  of  each,  agreeing  in  movement, 
though  differing  in  measure,*  and  which  make  different 
impressions  on  the  ear;  an  opulence  peculiar  to  our 
lan^age,  and  which  may  be  the  source  of  a  boundless 
variety. 

OF    POETICAL    PAUSES. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  pauses,  one  for  sense,  and  one 
for  melody,  perfectly  distinct  from  each  other.  The  for- 
mer may  be  called  sentential,  the  latter  harmonic  pauses. 

The  sentential  pauses  are  those  which  are  known  to  us 
by  the  name  of  stops,  and  which  have  names  given  them; 
as  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  and  period.; 

The  harmonic  pauses  may  be  subdivided  into  iih^  final 
pause,  and  the  caesural  pause.  These  sometimes  coincide 
with  the  sentential  pause,  sometimes  have  an  indepen- 
dent state,  that  is,  exist  where  there  is  no  stop  in  the  sense. 

The  final  pause  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  line, 
closes  the  verse,  and  marks  the  measure:  the  caesural 
divides  it  into  equal  or  unequal  parts. 

The  final  pause  preserves  the  melody,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  sense.  For  the  pause  itself  perfectly 
marks  the  bound  of  the  metre;  and  being  made  only  by 
a  suspension  of  the  voice,  not  by  any  change  of  note,  it, 
can  never  aftect  the  sense.  This  is  not  the  only  advan- 
tage gained  to  numbers,  by  this  final  pause  or  stop  of 
suspension.  It  also  prevents  that  monotony,  that  same- 
ness of  note  at  the  end  of  lines,^  which,  however  pleas- 
ing to  a  rude,  is  disgusting  to  a  delicate  ear.  For  as 
this  final  pause  has  no  peculiar  note  of  its  own,  but 
always  takes  that  which  belongs  to  the  preceding  word, 
it  changes  continually  with  the  matter,  and  is  as  various 
as  the  sense. 

*  It  is  the  final  pause  which  alone,  on  many  occasions, 
marks  the  difference  between  prose  and  verse;  whicb 
will  be  evident  from  the  following  arrangement  of  a  few 
poetical  lines. 

*  Movement  and  measure  are  Uius  distinguished.  3J<yvefmtnt  exprencB  Uie 
1)rogres8ive  order  of  sounds,  whether  from  strong  to  weak,  from  long  to  short, 
or  vice  vena.  Measwe  signifies  tbe  proportion  of  tlmei  both  in  soondl  aai^ 
^uaei. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.       [Versification. 

**0f  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit  of  that  for- 
^>idden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste  broueht  death  into  the 
world,  and  all  our  wo,  with  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater 
man  restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat,  sing  heavenly 
muse!" 

A  stranger  to  the  poem  would  not  easily  discover  that 
this  was  verse;  but  would  take  it  for  poetical  prose.  By 
properly  adjusting  the  final  pause,  we  shall  restore  the 
passage  to  its  true  state  of  verse. 

Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  wo^ 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat. 
Sing,  heavenly  muse! 
These  examples  show  the  necessity  of  reading  blank 
verse,  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  make  every  line  sensible 
to  the  ear;  for,  what  is  the  use  of  melody,  or  for  what 
end  has  the  poet  composed  in  verse,  if,  in  reading  his 
lines,  we  suppress  his  numbers,  by  omitting  the  final  < 
pause;   and  degrade  them,  by  our  pronunciation,  into 
mere  prose? 

The  Caesura  is  commonly  on  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth 
syllable  of  heroic  verse. 

On  the  fourth  syllable,  or  at  the  end  of  the  second  foot: 

*S'  .  ... 

The  silver  eel"  m  shining  volumes  roll'd, 

The  yellow  carp"  in  scales  bedropp'd  with  gold. 
On  the  fifth  syllable,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot: 
as, 

Round  broken  columns"  dlasping  ivy  twin'd, 
O'er  heaps  of  ruin"  stalk'd  the  stately  hind. 
On  the  sixth  syllable,  or  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot:  as, 
Oh  say  what  stranger  cause"  yet  unexplor'd, 
Could  make  a  gentle  belle"  reject  a  lord. 
A  line  may  be  divided  into  three  portions,  by  two 
caesuras:  as, 

Outstretch'd  he  lay"  on  the  cold  ground"  and  off 
Look'd  up  to  heav'n. 
There  is  another  mode  of  dividing  lines,  well  suited  tu 
the  nature  of  the  couplet,  by  introducing  semi-pauses, 


versification.]  prosody.  239 

Tvliich  divide  the  line  into  four  pauses/  The  semi-pau86 
way  be  called  a  demi-cassurcL    -  =-  -. 

The  follomng  lines  admit  of,  and  exemplify  it. 

Glows'  while  he  reads"  but  trembles'  as  he  WTites. 

Reason'  the  card"  but  passion'  is  the  gale. 

Rides'  in  the  whirlwina"  and  directs'  the  storm. 

OF  MELODY,  HARMONY,  AND   EXPRESSION. 

Having  shown  the  general  nature  of  feet  and  pauses, 
the  constituent  parts  of  verse;  we  shall  now  point  out, 
more  particularly,  their  use  and  importance. 

Melody,  harmony,  and  expression,  are  tlie  three  great 
objects  of  poetic  numbers.  By  melody,  is  meant,  a  pleas- 
ing effect  produced  on  the  ear,  from  an  apt  arrangement 
of  the  constituent  parts  of  verse,  according  to  the  law.s 
of  measure  and  movement.  Bv  harmony,  an  effect  pro- 
duced by  an  action  of  the  mincf,  in  comparing  the  ditfer- 
eirt  members  of  a  verse  with  each  other,  and  perceiving; 
a  due  and  beautiful  proportion  between  tliem.  By  ex- 
pression, such  a  choice  and  arrangement  of  the  constitu- 
ent parts  of  verse,  as  serve  to  enforce  and  illustrate  the 
thought  or  the  sentiment. 

We  shall  consider  each  of  these  three  objects  in  versi- 
fication, both  with  respect  to  the  feet  and  the  pauses. 

1st.  With  regard  to  melody. 

From  the  examples  which  we  have  given  of  verses 
composed  in  all  the  principal  feet,  it  is  evident  that  a 
considerable  portion  of  melody  is  found  in  each  of  them, 
though  in  different  degrees.  Verses  made  up  of  pure 
Iambics  have  an  excellent  melody. 

That  the  final  and  caesural  pauses  contribute  to  melo- 
dy, cannot  be  doubted  by  any  person  who  reviews  the 
instances  which  we  have  already  given  of  those  pauses- 
To  form  lines  of  the  first  melodv,  the  caesura  must  be  at 
the  end  of  the  second,  or  of  the  third  foot,  or  in  fljje 
middle  of  the  third. 

2d.  With  respect  to  hannony. 

Verses  composed  of  Iambics  have  indeed  a  fine  har- 
mony; but  as  the  stress  of  the  voice,  in  repeating  sucfa 
verses,  is  always  in  the  same  places,  tliat  is,  on  every 
8eco;id  syllable,  such  a  uniformity  would  disgust  the#«f^ 


9.ii0  EKGi.isH  ghammar.       f Versification^ 

In  a  loiiff  succession;  and  therefore  such  changes  were 
soudit  fir,  as  might  introduce  the  pleasure  of  variety,  •' 
without  prejudice  to  melody;  or  which  might  even  con-' 
tribute  to  its  improvement.  Of  this  nature  was  the  in- 
froduction  of  the  Trochee,  to  form  the  first  foot  of  an 
lieroic  verse:  as. 

Favours  to  none,  to  all  she  smiles  extends, 
O'ft  slie  rejects,  but  never  once  offends. 
Each  of  these  lines  begins  with  a  Trochee;  the  remain- 
ing feet  are  in  the  Iambic  movement.     In  the  following 
line  of  the  same  movement,  the  fourth  foot  is  a  Trochee. 
All  these  our  notions  vain,  sees  and  derides. 
The  next  change  admitted  for  the  sake  of  variety,  with- 
out prejudice  to  melody,  is  the  intermixture  of  Pyrrhics 
and  Spondees;  in  which,  two  impressions  in  the  one  foot 
make  up  for  the  want  of  one  in  the  other;  and  two  long 
syllables  compensate  two  short  ones,  so  as  to  make  the  ' 
*um  of  the  quantity  of  the  two  feet,  equal  to  two  Iambics. 
On  the  green  bank  to  look  into  the  clear 
Smooth  lake  that  to  me  seem'd  another  sky. 
Stood  rid'd  stood  vast  infinitude  confin'd. 
The  next  variety  admitted  is  that  of  the  Amphibrach. 

Which  many  a  bard  had  chaunted  mkny  a  day. 
In  this  line,  we  find  that  two  of  the  feet  are  Amphir 
biwchs;  and  three,  Iambics. 

We  have  before  shown  that  the  caesura  improves  tlie 
melody  of  verse;  and  we  shall  now  speak  of  its  other 
more  important  office,  that  of  being  the  chief  source  of 
harmony  in  numbers. 

The  first  and  lowest  perception  of  harmony,  by  mean* 
of  the  caesura,  arises  from  comparing  two  members  of 
the  same  line  with  each  other,  divided  in  the  manner  to 
be  seen  in  the  instances  before  mentioned;  because  the 
beauty  of  proportion  in  the  members,  according  to  each 
of  tliese  divisions,  is  founded  in  nature;  being  as  one  t» 
two — two  to  three— or  three  to  two. 

The  next  degree  arises  from  comparing  the  members 
of  a  couplet,  or  two  contiguous  lines:  as, 

See  the  bold  youth"  strain  up  the  threatening  steep, 
Bush  thro'  the  thickets"  down  the  valleys  sweep> 


Versification.^  prosody.  S3t 

Here  we  find  the  caesura  of  tlie  first  line,  at  tlie  eml 
€f  the  second  lootj  and  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot, 
ill  the  last  line. 

Hang  o'er  their  coursers'  heads"  with  eager  speed, 
And  earth  rolls  back"  beneath  the  flying  steed. 

In  this  couplet,  the  caesura  is  at  tJie  end  of  the  third 
foot,  in  the  first  line;  and  of  the  second,  m  me  latter  line. 

The  next  perception  of  harmony  arises  from  comparing 
a  greater  number  of  lines,  and  observing  the  relative  pro- 
portion of  the  couplets  to  each  other,  in  point  of  similarity 
and  diversity,  as: 

Thy  forests  Windsor"  and  thy  green  retreats, 
At  once  the  monarch's"  and  the  muse's  seats, 
Invite  my  lays."  Be  present  Sylvan  maids, 
Unlock  your  springs"  and  open  all  your  shades. 
Not  half  so  swift"  the  trembling  doves  can  fly, 
AVhen  the  fierce  eagle"  cleaves  the  liquid  sky; 
Not  half  so  swiftly"  the  fierce  eagle  moves. 
When  thro'  the  clouds"  he  drives  the  trembling  doves. 

In  this  way,  the  comparison  of  lines  variously  appor- 
tioned by  the  ditt'erent  seats  of  the  three  esesuras,  may 
be  the  source  of  a  great  variety  of  harmony,  cdnsistent 
with  the  finest  melody.  This  is  still  increased  by  the  in- 
troduction of  two  caesuras,  and  much  more  by  that  ol" 
semi-pauses.  The  semi-pauses  double  every  where  the 
terms  of  comparison;  give  a  more  distinct  vievv  of  the 
V  hole  and  the  parts;  attbrd  new  proportions  of  ineasure- 
tnent,  and  an  ampler  scope  for  diversity  and  equality, 
those  sources  of  beauty  in  harmony. 

VYarms'  In  the  sun"  refreshes'  in  the  breeze, 
(tIows'  in  the  stars"  and  blossoms'  in  tlie  trees, 
lives'  through  all  life"  extends'  through  all  extent, 
lr>preads'  unaivided"  operates'  unspent. 

Sd.  The  last  ob^ct  in  versification  regards  expressioii. 

When  men  express  their  sentiments  by  words,  thev 
naturally  fall  into  that  sort  of  movement  of  the  voice, 
which  is  consonant  to  that  produced  by  tlie  emotion  in. 
the  mind;  and  the  Dactylic  or  Anapaestic,  the  Trochaic. 
Iambic,  or  Spondaic,  prevails  even  in  common  discourse, 
according  to  the  difterent  nature  of  the  sentiments  ex 


232  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.       [VcrsificationC 

pressed.  To  imitate  nature,  therefore,  the  poet,  in  ar- 
ranging his  words  in  the  artificial  composition  of  verse, 
must  take  care  to  make  the  movement  correspond  to  tlie 
sentiment,  bj  the  proper  use  of  the  several  kinds  of  feet: 
and  this  is  the  first  and  most  general  source  of  expres- 
sion in  numbers. 

That  a  judicious  management  of  the  feet  and  pauses, 
may  be  peculiarly  expressive  of  particular  operations  and 
sentiments,  will  sufficiently  appear  to  the  learner,  by  a 
few  select  examples  under  eacli  of  those  heads. 

In  the  following  instance,  the  vast  dimensions  of  Satan 
are  shown  by  an  uncommon  succession  of  long  syllables, 
which  detain  us  to  survey  the  huge  arch  fiend,  in  hij* 
fixed  posture. 

So  stretch'd  out  huge  rn  length  the  arch  fiend  lay. 

The  next  example  affords  instances  of  the  power  of  a 
Trochee  beginning  a  line,  when  succeeded  by  an  Iambus. 

and  sheer  within 

Lights  on  his  feet:  as  when  a  prowling  wolf 
Leaps  o'er  the  fence  with  ease  into  the  fold. 

The  Trochee  which  begins  the  line  shows  Satan  in  the 
act  of  lighting:  the  Iambus  that  follows,  fixes  him — 
*'Lights  on  his  feet." 

The  same  artifice,  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  line, 
makes  us  see  the  wolf — "leap  o'er  the  fence."  But  a? 
the  mere  act  of  leaping  over  the  fence,  is  not  the  onl  ^ 
circumstance  to  be  attended  to,  but  also  the  facility  witk 
wliich  it  is  done,  this  is  strongly  marked,  not  only  by  the 
smooth  foot  which  follows — "with  ease" — itself  very  ex- 
plessive,  but  likewise  by  a  Pjrrliic  prccediua,  the  last 
loot — "into  the  fold" — wliich  indeed  carries  the  wolf — 
"with  case  into  the  fold." 

The  following  instances  show  the  effects  produced  by 
c:csuras,  so  placed  as  to  divide  the  line  into  very  un- 
equal portions:  such  as  that  after  the 'first,  and  befoie 
the  last  semipede. 

-— — thus  with  the  year 

Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Bay"  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn. 

Here  the  csesura  after  the  first  semipede  Day,  stops  us 


PiaNCTUATION.  23S 

unexpectedly,  and  forcibly  impresses  the  imagination 

with  the  greatness  of  the  author's  loss,  the  loss  of  sight. 
No  sooner  had  th'  Almighty  ceas'd,  but  all 
The  multitude  of  angels,  with  a  shout 
Loud"  as  from  numbers  without  number"  sweet 

As  from  blest  yoices  uttering  joy. '■ 

There  is  something  verj  striking  in  this  uncommon 

caesura,  which  suddenly  stops  the  reader,  to  reflect  on 

the  importance  of  a  particular  word. 

We  shall  close  the  subject,  with  an  example  containin^j^ 

the  united  powers  of  many  of  the  principles  which  ha^e 

been  explained. 

Dire  was  the  tossing"  deep  the  groans"  Despair" 
Tended  the  sick"  biusiest  from  couch  to  couch" 
And  over  them  triumphant  death"  his  d^rt" 
Shook"  but  delay'd  to  strike. 
Many  of  the  rules  and  observations  respecting  Prosod  v, 

are  taken  from  "Sheridan's  x\rt  of  Reading;"  to  which' 

book  the  Compiler  refers  the  ingenious  student,  for  more 

extensive  information  on  the  subject. 


PUNCTUATION.* 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  xlividing  a  written 
composition  into  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences,  by 
points  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  marking  the  dif- 
ferent pauses  which  the  sense,  and  an  accurate  pro- 
nunciation require. 

The  Comma  represents  the.  shortest  pause;  the 
SemicQlon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma;  the 
Colon,  double  that  of  the  semicolon;  and  the  Period, 
double  that  of  the  colon. 

The  precise  quantity  or  duration  of  each  pause,  cannot 
be  defined;  for  it  varies  with  the  time  of  the  whole.  The 
same  composition  may  be  rehearsed  in  a  quicker  or  sl6wer' 

*  As  punctuation  is  intended  to  aid  bf>T)i  the  sense,  and  the  pronuncTation  nf 
u  sentence.it  could  not  have  been  exclusively  discui^sed  under  the  part  of  tfvntav. 
or  of  Prosody.  The  nature  of  tlie  subject,  "its  extent  and  imiwrtance,  niVd  tlx*. 
grammatical  knowledge  which  it  pieoupposes,  liavc  itiduced  us  to  luaie  i^i»  d[»- 
tinct  and  subsequent  article. 

V  a, 


S34  EifGLisH  GRAMMAR.  fCommat*" 

time;  but  the  proportion  between  tlie  pauses  should  be 
ever  invariable. 

in  order  more  clearly  to  determine  the  proper  applica- 
tion of  the  points,  we  must  distinguish  between  an  imper- 
fect phrase^  a  simple  se/itence,  and  a  compound  sentence. 

An  imperfect  phrase  contains  no^assertion,  or  does  not 
amount  to  a  proposition  or  sentence:  as,  "Therefore;  in 
haste;  studious  of  praise.^' 

A  simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject,  and  one  finite 
verb,  expressed  or  implied:  as,  "Temperance  preserves 
health.^'  t-  ^  i-  r 

A  compound  sentence  has  more  than  one  subject,  or  one 
finite  verb,  either  expressed  or  understood;  or  it  consists 
of  two  or  more  simple  sentences  connected  together:  as^ 
"Good  nature  mends^and  beautifies  all  objects;*'  ^Virtue 
refines  the  affeetions,  but  vice  debases  them." 

In  ft  sentence,  the  subject  and  the  verh,  or  either  of 
^em,  may  be  accompanied  with  several  adjuncts:  as,  tho. 
iipject,  the  en4,  the  circumstance  of  time,  place,  manner, 
and  the  like:  aiid  the  subject  or  verb  may  be  either  im- 
mediately connected  with  them,  or  mediately;  that  is,  hr 
be^ng  connected  v/ith  something  which  i*  connected  with 
some  other,  and  so  on:  as,  ''The  mind,  unoccupied  with 
useful  knowledge,  becomes  a  magazine  of  trifles  and  fbf- 
lies." 

Meraber»-of  sentences  may  be  divided  into  simple  and 
compound  members.    See  page  125 

CHAPTER  L   * 

Of  the  Comma. 

The  Commu  usually  separates  those  parts  of  a  Sen* 
tcnce,  which,  though  very  closely  connected  in  sense 
and  construction,  requirie  a  pause  between  them: 

Rule  i.  With  respect  to  a  simple  sentence,  the  several 
word^  of  which  it  consists  have  so  near  a  relation  to  each 
other,  that,  in  general,  no  points  are  requisite,  except  a 
full  stop  at  the  end  of  it:  as,  *  *The  fear  of  the  Lord  ik 
^e  be^mning  of  wisdom;"  "Every  part  of  matter  swarma 
\\iith  living  creatures." 

»  A  simple  sentence,  however,  when  it  is  a  long  one,  and 
the  i)oimnative  case  is  accompanied  with  inseperable  ad- 


Comma.]  punctuation.  23^5 

juncts,  may  admit  of  a  -pause  immediately  before  the 
verb:  as,  ''The  good  taste  of  the  present  age,  has  not  al- 
lowed us  to  neglect  the  cultivation  of  the  English  lan- 
guage:" *'To  be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure^ 
IS  a  real  defect  in  character." 

Rule  ii.  AVhen  the  connexion  of  the  different  parts  of 
a  simple  sentence  is  interrupted  by  an  imperfect  phrase, 
a  comma  is  usually  introduced  before  the  beginning,  and 
at  the  end  of  this  phrase:  as,  "I  remember,  ivith  gratitude, 
his  goodness  to  me:"  ''His  work  is,  in  many  respects,  \ery 
imperfect.  It  is,  therefore,  not  much  approved."  But 
when  these  interruptions  are  slight  and  unimportant,  the 
comma  is  better  omitted:  as,  "Flattery  is  certainly  per- 
nicious;" "There  is  surely  a  pleasure  in  beneficence." 

In  the  generality  of  compound  sentences,  there  is  fre- 
quent occasion  for  commas.  This  will  appear  from  the 
ftllowing  rules;  some  of  which  apply  to  simple,  as  well 
as  to  compound  sentences. 

Rule  hi.  When  two  or  more  nouns  occur  in  the  sam^- 
construction,  they  are  parted  by  a  comma:  as,  "Reason^ 
virtue,  answer  one  ^reat  aim:"  "The  husband,  wife, 
and  children,  suffered  extremely:"*  "They  took  awaj 
tbeir  furniture,  clothes,  and  stock  in  trade;"  "He  is^ 
alternately  supported  by  his  fatlier,  his  uncle,  and  his^^ 
elder  brother." 

From  this  rule  there  is  mostly  an  exception,  with  re- 
gard to  two  nouns  closely  connected  by  a  conjunction:  as^^ 
'^Virtue  am/  vice  form  a  strong  contrast  to  each  other;" 
*^*^Libertines  call  religion  bigotry  or  superstition;"  "There 
is  a  natural  difference  between  merit  and  demerit,  virtue 
and  vice,  wisdom  and  folly."  But  if  the  parts  connected 
are  not  short,  a  comma  may  be  inserted,  though  the 
conjunction  is  expressed:  as,  "Romances  may  be  said  to 
be  miserable  rhapsodies,  or  dangerous  incentives  to  evil;" 
"Intemperance  destroys  the  strength  of  our  bodies,  aivJt 
the  vigour  of  our  minds." 

Rule  iv.  Two  or  more  adjectives  belonging  to  the  same 
substantive  are  likewise  separated  by  commas:  as,  "Plain^ 
honest  truth,  wants  no  artificial  covering;"  "David  was 

*  Aa  a  conaiderable  pause  in  pronunciation,  is  neceomry  between  the  last^ 
nj>un  and  tlie  verb,  a  comma  should  be  iiuierted  to  denote  it.  But  as  no  panse 
is  aJifrw  able  between  the  last  adjeciive  and  tlie  noun,  under  Rule  IV.  tbe  coutl9% 
u  tliere  properly  o»iUed.    £««  W^ALKER's  EUwcnts  of  El$<:uliwi^ 


5^6  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [ComiTla. 

fi  brave,  Tvise,  and  pious  man;"  "A  woman,  gentle,  sen- 
sible, well-educated,  and  religious,*"  ''The  most  innocent 
pleasures  are  the  sweetest,  the  most  rational,  the  most 
aftecting,  and  the*most  lasting." 

But  two  adjectives,  immediatelj  connected  bj  a  con- 
junction^  are  not  separated  by  a  comma:  as,  **True 
wrorth  is  modest  and  retired;"  "Truth  is  fair  and  artless, 
simple  «72c?  sincere,  uniform  and  consistent."  "We  must 
be  wise  or  foolish;  there  is  no  m.edium." 

Rule  v.  Two  or  more  verbs,  having  the  same  nomina- 
tive case,  and.  immediatelj  following  one  another,  are 
also  separated  bj  commas:  as,  "Virtue  supports  in  ad- 
versity, moderates  in  prosperity:"  "In  a  letter,  we  may 
advise,  exhort,  comfort,  request,  and  discuss." 

Two  verbs  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
are  an  exception  to  the  above  rule:  as,  "The  study  of 
natural  history  expands  and  elevates  the  mind;"  "Whe- 
ther we  eat  or  drink,  labour  or  sleep,  we  should  be  mo- 
derate." 

Two  or  more  participles  are  subject  to  a  similar  rule, 
and  exception:  as,  "A  man,  fearing,  serving,  and  loving 
his  Creator;"  "He  was  happy  in  being  loved,  esteemed, 
and  respected;"  "By  being  admired  and  flattered,  we 
are  often  corrupted." 

Rule  vi.  Two  or  more  adverbs  immediately  succeed- 
ing one  another,  must  be  separated  by  commas:  as^  "We 
are  fearfully,  wonderfully  framed;"  "Success  generally 
depends  on  acting  prudently,  steadily,  and  vigorously,  iii 
what  we  undertake." 

But  when  two  adverbs  are  joined  by  a  conjunction, 
they  are  not  pai'ted  by  the  comma:  as,  "Some  men  sin 
deliberately  and  presumptuously;"  "There  is  no  middle 
state;  we  must  live  virtuously  or  viciously." 

Rule  vii.  WHien  participles  are  followed  by  something 
that  depends  on  tliem,  they  are  generally  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma:  as,  **The  king, 
approving  the  plan,  put  it  in  execution;"  ''His  talents, 
formed  for  great  enterprises,  could  not  fail  of  rendering 
liim  conspicuous;"  "All  mankind  compose  one  family, 
dissembled  under  the  eye  of  one  common  Father." 

Rule  viii.  When  aconjunction  is  divided  by^  phrase 
fr  sentence  from  the  verb  to  which  it  belongs,  such  in- 


Comma.]  puxcTUATiay.  S3f 

tervening  phrase  has  usually  a  comma  at  each  extremity: 
as,  **They  set  out  eai'ly,  and,  before  the  close  of  the  day, 
arHved  at  the  destined  place." 

Rule  ix.  Expressions  in  a  direct  address,  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas:  as,  "Aii/ 
son,  give  me  thy  heart;"  '*I  am  obliged  to  you,  my 
friends^  for  your  many  favours."  , 

Rule  x.  The  case  absolute,  and  the  infinitive  mood 
absolute,  are  separated  by  commas  from  the  body  of  the 
sentence:  as,  "His  father  dying,  he  succeeded  to  the 
estate;"  ''At  length,  their  ministry  performed,  and  race 
well  run,  they  left  the  world  in  peace;"  "To  confess  the 
truth,  I  was  much  in  fault." 

Rule  xi.  Nouns  in  apposition,  that  is,  nouns  added  to- 
other nouns  in  the  same  case,  by  way  of  explication  or 
illustration,  when  accompanied  with  adjuncts,  are  set  oft' 
by  commas:  as,  "Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was 
eminent  for  his  zeal  and  knowledge;"  "The  butterfly, 
^child  of  the  summer,  flutters  in  the  sun." 

But  if  such  noun«  are  single,  or  only  form  a  proper 
name,  they  are  not  divided:  as,  "Paul  the  apostle;"  "The 
emperor  Antoninus  wrote  an  excellent  booki" 

Rule  xii.  Simple  members  of  sentences  connected  by 
comparatives,  are  for  the  most  part  distinguished  by  a 
comma:  as,  "^s  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks^ 
io  doth  my  soul  pant  after  thee;"  ''Better  is  a  dinner  of 
herbs  with  love,  than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  with  it." 

If  the  members  in  comparative  sentences  are  short, 
the  comma  is,  in  general,  better  omitted:  as,  "How 
much  better  is  it  to  ^et  wisdom  than  gold!"  "Mankind, 
act  ofiener  from  caprice  than  reason." 

Rule  xiii.  When  words  are  placed  in  opposition  to 
each  other,  or  with  soum marked  variety,  they  require  to 
be  distinguished  by  a  comma:  as, 

"Tho'  deep,  yet  clear;  tho'  gentle,  yet  not  dull;        i^ 

Strong,  without  rage;  without  o'ernowing,  full."  ' 

"Good  men,  in  this  frail,  imperfect  stato,  are  often  found, 
not  only  in  union  with,  but  in  opposition  to,  the  views 
and  conduct  of  one  another." 

Sometimes  when  the  word  with  which  the  last  prepo- 
sition agrees,  is  single,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  comim* 


S38  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Comma. 

before  it:  as,  '^Matiy  states  were  in  alliance  with^  and 
under  the  j)rotection  of  Rome." 

The  same  rule  and  restrictions  must  be  applied  when 
two  or  more  nouns  refer  to  the  same  preposition:  as. 
^'He  was  composed  both  under  the  threatening,  and  a» 
tlie  approach,  q/'a  cruel  and  lingering  deatli;"  "He  wa- 
not  only  the  king,  but  the  father  of  his  people." 

Rule  xiv.  A  remarkable  expression,  or  a  short  obser- 
vation, somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  quotation,  may  he 
properly  marked  with  a  comma:  as,  *'It  hurts  a  man' 
I>riae  to  say,  I  do  not  know;"  "Plutarch  calls  lying,  the 
vice  of  slaves." 

Rule  xv.  Relative  pronouns  are  connective  words, 
and  eenerallj^  admit  a  comma  before  them:  as,  '<He 
preaches  sublimely,  ivho  lives  a  sober,  righteous,  and 
pious  life;"  "There  is  no  charm  in  the  female  sex,  which 
can  supply  the  place  of  virtue."  ^ 

But  when  two  members,  or  phrases,  are  closely  con- 
nected by  a  relative,  restraining  the  general  notion  of 
the  antecedent  to  a  particular  sense,  the  comma  should 
be  omitted:  as,  "Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue 
mast  make;'^  "A  iwan  who  is  of  a  detracting  spirit,  will 
misconstrue  the  most  innocent  words  that  can  be  put 
together."  In  the  latter  example,  the  assertion  is  not  of 
"a  man  in  general,"  but  of  "a  man  who  is  of  a  detracdng 
spirit;"  and  therefore  they  should  not  be  separated.      " 

The  fifteenth  rule  applies  equally  to  cases  in  which  the 
relative  is  not  expressed,  but  understood:  as,  "It  was 
from  piety,  warm  and  unaffected,  that  his  morals  derived 
strength."  "This  sentiment,  habitual  and  strong,  influ- 
enced his  whole  conduct."  In  both  of  these  examples, 
the  relative  and  verb  which  ivas,  are  understood. 

Rule  xvi.  A  simple  member  of  a  sentence,  contained 
within  another,  or  following  another,  must  be  distin- 
guished by  the  comma:  as,  "To  improve  time  whilst  ^\^' 
are  blessed  with  health,  will  smooth  the  bed  of  sickness.** 
"Very  often,  while  we  are  complaining  of  the  vanity,  and 
the  evils  of  human  life,  we  make  that  vanity,  and  we  in« 
crease  those  evils." 

If,  however,  the  members  succeeding  each  other,  are 
very  closely  connected,  the  comma  is  unnecessary:  as, 
^'Revelation  tells  us  how  we  may  attain  happiness." 


€omma.]  punctuation.  55^ 

When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  follows  its  govern*- 
iug  verb,  with  several  words  between  them,  those  words 
should  generally  have  a  comma  at  the  end  of  them:  as, 
"It  ill  becomes  good  and  wise  meri,  to  oppose  and  degrade 
one  another." 

Several  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  having  a  common 
dependence,  and  succeeding  one  another,  are  also  divid- 
ed by  commas:  as,  "To  relieve  the  indigent,  to  comfort 
the  afflicted,  to  protect  the  innocent,  to  reward  the  de- 
serving, are  humane  and  noble  emplo}'Tnents." 

Rule  xvii.  When  the  verb  to  be  is  Ibllowed  by  a  verb 
in  the  infinitive  mood,  which,  by  transposition,  might  be 
made  the  nominative  case  to  it,  the  former  is  generally 
separated  froni  the  latter  verb,  by  a  comma:  as,  "The^ 
most  obvious  remedy  is,  to  withdraw  from  all  associa- 
tions with  bad  men."  "The  first  and  most  obvious  re- 
medy against  the  infection,  is,  to  withdraw  from  all 
associations  with  bad  men." 

Rule  xviii.  When  adjuncts  or  circumstances  arc  of 
importance,  and  often  when  the  natural  order  of  them  is 
inverted,  they  may  be  set  off  by  commas:  as,  "Virtue 
must  be  formed  and  supported,  not  by  unfrequent  acts, 
but  by  daily  and  repeated  exertions."  "Vices,  like  sha- 
dows, towards  the  evening  of  life,  grow  great  and  mon- 
strous." "Our  interests  are  interwoven  by  threads  innu- 
merable." "By  threads  innumerable,  our  interests  are 
interwoven." 

Rule  xix.  Where  a  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  may 
often  be  properly  introduced.  This  is  a  general  rule, 
which,  besides  comprising  some  of  the  preceding  rules, 
will  apply  to  many  cases  not  determined  by  any  of  them: 
as,  "From  law  arises  security;  from  security,  curiosity; 
from  curiosity,  knowledge."  In  this  example,  the  verb 
"arises"  is  understood  before  * 'curiosity"  and  **know- 
ledge;"  at  which  words  a  considerable  pause  is  necessary. 

Rule  xx.  The  words,  nay^  so,  hence,  again,  firsts  «€- 
€ondly,  formerly,  now^  las'Iy^  once  more,  c&oveall,  on  the 
contra)^,  in  the  next  place^  iu  short,  a.nd  all  other  words 
and  phrases  of  the  same  kuid,  must  generally  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  context  by  a  comma:  as,  "Remember  thy 
best  and  first  friend;  formerly^  iho^  supporter  of  thy  ia- 
fancy,  and  the  guide  oi  thy  chiidliood;  iww,  tUe  guardian 


S40  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  ^Semicolon. 

of  thy  youth,  and  the  hope  of  thy  coming  years.'*  *^He 
fearetl  want,  hence,  he  over -valued  riches.^'  "This  con- 
duct may  heal  the  diiFerence,  nay,  it  may  constantly 
prevent  any  in  future.  ^'Finally,  I  shall  only  repeat 
what  has  been  often  justly  said."  "If  the  spring  put  forth 
no  blossoms,  in  summer  there  will  be  no  beauty,  and  in 
autumn,  no  fruit;  so,  if  youth  be  trifled  away  without 
improvement,  riper  years  may  be  contemptible,  and  old 
age  miserable." 

In  many  of  the  foregoing  rules  and  examples,  great 
regard  must  be  paid  to  the  length  of  the  clauses,  and  tho 
proportion  which  they  bear  to  one  another.  An  attention 
to  the  sense  of  any  passage,  and  to  the  clear,  easy  com- 
munication of  it,  will,  it  is  presumed,  with  the  aid  of  the 
preceding  rules^  enable  the  student  to  adjust  the  proper 
pauses,  and  the  places  for  inserting  the  commas, 

CHAPTER  II. 

Of  the  Semicolon. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  for  dividing  a  compound 
sentence  into  two  or  more  parts,  not  so  closely  con- 
nected as  those  which  are  separated  by  a  comma,  nor 
yet  so  little  dependent  on  each  other,  as  those  whicli 
are  distinguished  by  a  colon. 

The  semicolon  is  sometimes  used,  when  the  preceding 
member  of  the  sentence  does  not  of  itself  give  a  complete 
sense,  but  depends  on  the  following  clauses  and  some- 
times when  the  sense  of  that  member  would  be  complete 
without  the  concluding  one:  as  in  the  following  instan- 
ces: "As  the  desire  of  approbation,  when  it  works  ac- 
cording to  reason,  improves  the  amiable  part  of  our  spe- 
cies in  every  thing  that  is  laudable;  so  nothing  is  more  de- 
structive to  them  when  it  is  governed  by  vanity  and  folly." 

"Experience  teaches  us,  that  an  entire  retreat  from 
worldly  affairs,  is  not  what  religion  requires;  nor  does  it 
even  enjoin  a  long  retreat  from  them." 

"Straws  gwim  upon  the  surface;  but  pearls  lie  at  the 
Iwttom." 

"Philosophers  assert,  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her 
©perations;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  re- 
serve; that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive;  and 


iJolon.]  PUNCTUATION,  241 

that  all  future  generations  will  continue  to  make  disco- 
veries, of  whicn  we  have  not  the  least  idea." 

CHAPTER  III. 

^  Of  the  Colon, 

The  Colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  ^l' 
«iore  parts,  less  connected  than  those  which  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  semicolon;  but  not  so  independent  as 
separate  distinct  sentences. 

The  polon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  three  fol^ 
lowing  ^es. 

1.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  itself, 
but  followed  by  some  supplemental  remark,  or  further 
illustration  of  the  subject:  as,  "Nature  felt  her  inability 
to  extricate  herself  from  the  consequence^  of  guilt:  ih(^, 
gospel  reveals  the  plan  of  Divine  interposition  and  aid." 
**Nature  confessed  some  atonement  to  be  necessary:  th« 
gospel  discovers  that  the  necessary  atonement  is  made." 

9..  When  several  semicolons  have  preceded,  and  a  still 
greater  pause  is  necessary,  in  order  to  mark  the  connect- 
ing or  concluding  sentiment:  as,  "A  divine  legislator 
uttering  his  voice  from  heaven;  an  almighty  governor, 
stretchmg  forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  reward;  informing 
us  of  perpetual  rest  prepared  hereafter  for  the  righteous^ 
and  of  indignation  and  wrath  awaiting  the  wicked:  these 
'ire  the  considerations  which  overawe  the  world,  wlilch 
support  integrity,  and  check  guilt." 

3.  The  Cfelon  is  commonly  used  when  an  example,  ». 
«|Uotation,  or  a  speech  is  introduced:  as,  "The  Scriptures 
give  us  an  amiable  representation  of  the  Deity,  in  these 
words:  *God  is  love.'  "  *'He  was  often  heard  to  say:  'I 
have  done  with  the  world,  aiid  I  am  willing  to  leave  it.' " 

The  propriety  of  using  a  colon,  or  semicolon,  is  some- 
times determined  by  a  conjunction's  being  expressed,  or 
tiot  expressed:  as,  "Do  not  flatter  yourselves  with  the 
hope  of  perfect  happiness:  there  is  no  sucli  thing  in  the 
world."  **Do  not  flatter  yourselves  with  the  hope  of 
perfect  happiness; /or  there  is  po  such  thing  in  the  world," 


jM2  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  £DaSh.' 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Gf  the  Period.  ^ 

When  a  sentence  is  complete  and  independent, 
and  not  connected  in  construction  with  the  lollowing 
sentence,  it  is  marked  with  a  Period. 

Some  sentences  are  independent  of  each  other,  both  in 
their  sense  and  coHstruction:  as,  * 'Fear  God.    Honour; 
the  king.     Have  charity  towards  all  men."    Others  are  > 
independent  only  in  their  grammatical  construction:  as,-  - 
**The  Supreme  Being  changes  not,  either  in  his  desire  ' 
to  promote  our  happiness,  or  in  the  plan  of  his  adminis- 
tration.   One  li^ht  always  shines  upon  us  from  above. 
One  clear  and  direct  path  is  always  pointed  out  to  man.'' 

A  period  may  sometimes  be  admitted  between  two 
sentences,  though  they  are  joined  by  a  disjunctive  or  co- 
pulative conjunction.  For  the  quality  of  the  point  does 
not  always  depend  on  the  connective  particle,  but  on  the 
sense  and  structure  of  sentences:  as,  "Recreation^ 
though  they  may  be  of  an  innocent  kind,  require  steady 
government,  to  keep  them  within  a  due  and  limited  pro- 
vince. But  such  as  are  of  an  irregular  and  vicious  natur(i, 
are  not  to  be  eoverned,  but  to  be  banished  from  every 
tvell-regnlated  mind. 

"He  who  lifts  himself  up  to  the  observation  and  notic0i 
of  the  world,  is,  of  all  men,  the  least  likely  to  avoitil 
censure.    For  he  draws  upon  himself  a  thousand  eye? 
\hat  will  narrowly  inspect  him  in  every  part." 

The  period  should  be  used  after  evei^^-abbreviate^d 
word:  as,  "M.S.  P.S.  N. B.  A.D.  O.S.  N.S."&c. 

CHAPTER  V. 

()fthe  Dash,  Notes  of  Interrogation  and  Exclamation,  ^c. 

THE   DASH. 

The  Dash,  though  often  used  improperlj^  by  hast}^  and 
-^♦incoherent  writers,  may  be  introduced  with  proprio^}^, 
•where  the  sentence  breaks  off  abruptly;  where  a  signiji- 
cant  pause  is  required;  or  where  there  is  an  unexpetSted 
twrn  m  the  sentiment:  as,  "If  thou  art  he,  so  much, re- 
spected once — ^but,  oh!  how  fallen!  how  degraded!"  "If 


ExclaiuationJ  punctuatiojt.  243 

acting  conformably  to  the  will  of  our  Creator; — if  pro- 
moting the  welfare  of  mankind  around  us; — if  securing 
our  own  happiness; — are  objects  of  the  highest  moment: 
— then  we  are  loudly  called  upon,  to  cultivate  and  extend 
the  great  interests  of  religion  and  virtue." 

"Here  lies  the  great False  marble,  where? 

Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  iiere." 
Besides  the  points  which  mark  the  pauses  in  discours^ 
there  are  others,  which  denote  a  different  modulation  oi 
voice,  in  correspondence  to  the  sense.  These  are, 
The  Interrogation  point,        ? 
The  Exclamation  point,  ! 

The  Parenthesis,  ( ) 

INTERROGATION. 

A  note  of  Interrogation  is  used  at  the  end  of  an  inter- 
rogative sentence;  that  is,  when  a  question  is  asked:  as, 
•*  Who  will  accompany  me?"  "Shall  we  always  be  friends?"^^ 

Questions  which  a  person  asks  himself  in  contempla- 
tion, ought  to  be  terminated  by  points  of  interrogation: 
as,  "Who  adorned  the  heavens  with  such  exquisite 
beauty?"  "At  whose  command  do  the  planets  perform 
their  constant  revolutions?" 

A  point  of  interrogation  is  improper  after  sentences 
iiHbich  are  not  questions,  but  only  expressions  of  admi- 
ration, or  of  some  other  emotion. 

''How  many  instances  have  we  of  chastity  and  excel- 
Jence  in  the  fair  sex!" 

**\Vith  wlmt  prudence  does  the  son  of  Siracii  advise 
'IS  in  the  choice  of  our  companions!" 

A  note  of  interrogation  should  not  be  employed,  ih 
cases  where  it  is  only  said  a  question  has  been  asked, 
and  where  the  words  are  not  used  as  a  question.  *'The 
Cyprians  asked  me,  why  I  wept."  To  give  this  sentence' 
the  interrogative  form,  it  should  be  expressed  thus:  "The 
Cyprians  said  to  me,  *Why  dost  thou  weep?' " 

EXCLAMATION. 

The  note  of  Exclamation  is  applied  to  (expressions  of 
sudden  emotion,  surprise,  joy,  j^rief,  &c.  and  also  to  invo- 
cations or  addresses:  as,  "My  friend!  this  conduct  amazes 
me!"  "Bless  the  Lord,  0  my  soul!  and  forget  not  all  hia 
benefitsi" 


244  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.        [Parenthesigi. 

"Oh!  had  we  botli  our  humble  state  maintain'd, 
And  safe  in  peace  and  povertj  remaiu'd!" 
"Hear  me,  O  Lord!  for  thy  loving  kindness  is  great!" 
It  is  difficult,  in  some  cases,  to  distinguish  between  aii 
interrogative  and  exclamatory  sentence;  but  a  sentence, 
in  which  any  wonder  or  admiration  is  expressed,  and  no 
answer  either  expected  or  implied,  may  be  always  pro- 
perly terminated  by  a  note  of  exclamation:  as,  <'How 
much  vanfty  in  the  pursuits  of  men!'*  "Who  can  suffi- 
ciently express  the  goodness  of  our  Creator!"  ''What  is 
more  amiable  than  virtue!" 

The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are  indeter- 
ininate  as  to  their  quantity  or  time,  and  may  be  equivalent 
in  that  respect  to  a  semicolon,  a  colon,  or  a  period,  as  the 
sense  may  require.  They  mark  an  elevation  of  the  voice. 
The  utdity  of  the  points  of  Interrogation  and  Exclama- 
tion, appears  from  the  following  examples,  in  which  the 
meaning  is  signified  and  discriminated  solely  by  the  points. 
''What  condescension!" 
"What  condescension?" 
"How  great  was  the  sacrifice!" 
"How  great  was  the  sacrifice?" 

PARENTHESIS. 

•^  A  Parenthesis  is  a  clause  containing  some  necessary 
information,  or  useful  remark,  introduced  into  the  body 
of  a  sentence  obliquely,  and  which  may  be  omitted  with- 
out injuring  the  grammatical  construction:  ag, 

"Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." 
"And  was  the  ransom  paid?  It  was;  and  paid 
(What  can  exalt  his  bounty  more?)  for  thee." 
"To  gain  a  posthumous  reputation,  is  to  save  four  or 
five  letters  (for  what  is  a  name  besides?)  from  oblivion.^ 
-Know  ye  not,  brethren,  (for  I  speak  to  them  that  know 
the  law,)  how  that  the  law  hath  dominion  over  a  man  as 
long  as  he  liveth?" 

If  the  incidental  clause  is  short,  or  perfectly  coincides 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not  proper,to  use  the 
parenthetical  characters.  The  following  instances  are 
therefore  improper  uses  of  the  parenthesis.    "Speak  you 


Apostrophe,  &C.3       punctuation.  245 

(who  saw)  his  wonders  in  the  deep."  "Every  planet  (as 
the  Creator  has  made  notliing  in  vain)  is  most  probably 
inhabited."  "He  found  them  asleep  again;  (for  their  ey^s 
were  heavy;)  neither  knew  they  what  to  answer  him." 

The  parenthesis  marks  a  moderate  depression  of  the 
voice,  and  may  be  accompanied  with  every  point  which 
the  sense  would  require,  if  the  parenthetical  characters 
were  omitted.  It  ought  to  terminate  with  the  same  kind 
of  stop  which  the  member  has,  that  precedes  it;  and  l<» 
contain  that  stop  within  the  parenthetical  marks.  Wi> 
TOUst,  however,  except  cases  of  interrogation  and  excla- 
mation: as,  "While  ttiey  wish  to  please,  (and  why  should 
they  not  wish  it?)  they  disdain  dishonourable  means.'* 
"It  was  represented  by  an  analogy,  (Oh,  how  inadequate!) 
which  was  borrowed  from  paganism."  See  the  Octavo 
Grammar^  on  this  subject. 


There  are  other  characters,  which  are  frequently 
made  use  of  in  composition,  and  which  may  be  explained 
in  this  place,  viz. 

An  Apostrophe,  marked  thus  '  is  used  to  abbreviate 
or  shorten  a  word:  as,  Vis  for  it  is$  tho^  for  though;  e^en 
for  even;  judged  for  judged.  Its  chief  use  is  to  show 
the  genitive  case  of  nouns:  as,  "A  man's  property;  a 
woman's  ornament." 

A  Caret,  marked  thus  a  is  placed  where  some  word 
happens  to  be  left  out  in  writing,  and  which  is  inserted 
over  the  line.  This  mark  is  also  called  a  circumflex, 
when  placed  over  a  particular  vowel,  to  denote  a  long 
syllable:  as,  "Euphrates." 

A  Hyphen,  marked  thus  -  is  employed  in  connecting 
compounded  words:  as,  "Lap-do^,  tea-pot,  pre-existence, 
self-love,  to-morrow,  mother-in-law." 

It  is  also  used  when  a  word  is  divided,  and  the  former 
part  is  written  or  printed  at  the  end  of  one  line,  and  thp 
latter  part  at  the  beginning  of  another.  In  this  case,  it 
IS  placed  at  the  end  of  the  first  line,  not  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second. 

The  Acute  Accent,  marked  thus  ' :  as,  "Fancy."  The 
Grave  thus  ^ :  as,  "Fdvour." 

In  English,  the  Accentual  marks  are  chiefly  used  in 


Q46  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

spelling-books  and  dictionaries,  to  mark  the  syllables 
which  require  a  particular  stress  of  the  voice  in  pronun- 
ciation. 

The  stress  is  laid  on  long  and  short  syllables  indiscri- 
minately. In  order  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other, 
some  writers  of  dictionaries  have  placed  the  grave  oi 
Ihe  former,  and  the  acute  on  the  latter,  in  this  manner; 
'^•Minor,  mineral,  lively,  livid,  rival,  river." 

The  proper  mark  to  distinguish  a  long  syllable,  i? 
ibis  ':  as,  "Rosy:"  and  a  short  one  this  ":  as,  "Folly." 
This  last  mark  is  called  a  breve. 

A  Diaeresis,  thus  marked  •  ,  consists  of  two  points 
placed  over  one  of  the  two  vowels  that  would  otherwise 
make  a  diphthong,  and  parts  them  into  two  syllables:  a». 
'^'Creator,  coadjutor,  aerial." 

A  Section,  marked  thus  §,  is  the  division  of  a  dis- 
course,  or  chapter,  into  less  parts  or  portions. 

A  Paragraph  t  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  sub- 
ject, or  a  sentence  not  connected  with  the  foregoing 
This  character  is  chiefly  used  in  the  Old,  and  in  the  Nev 
Testaments. 

A  Quotation  "  ".  Two  inverted  Commas  are  generally 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  phrase  or  a  passage,  wliicli 
R  quoted  or  transcribed  from  the  speaker  or  author  in 
his  own  words;  and  two  commas  in  their  direct  position^ 
are  placed  at  the  conclusion:  as, 

"The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 

Crotchets  or  Brackets  [  ]  sei-ve  to  enclose  a  word  or 
■sentence,  which  is  to  be  explained  in  a  note,  or  the  ex- 
planation itself,  or  a  word  or  a  sentence  which  is  intend- 
ed-to  supply  some  deficiency,  or  to  rectify  some  mistake 

An  Index  or  Hand  |C7"  points  out  a  remarkable  pas 
sage,  or  something  that  requires  particular  attention. 

A  Brace   >  is  used  in  poetry  at  the  end  of  a  triplet 

or  three  lines,  which  have  the  same  rhyme. 

Braces  are  also  used  to  connect  a  number  of  words 
with  one  common  term,  and  are  introduced  to  prevent  a 
repetition  in  writing  or  printing. 

An  Asterisk,  or  little  star  *,  directs  the  reader  to  some 
note  in  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Twc^ 
or  three  asterisks  generally  denote  tl\e  omission  of  scffi.e 


PUNCTUATION'.  ^7 

letters  in  a  word,  or  of  some  bold  or  indelicate  expres- 
sion, or  some  defect  in  the  manuscript. 

An  Ellipsis  —  is  also  used,  when  some  letters  in  a 
>vord,  or  some  words  in  a  verse,  are  omitted:  as,  **The 
k— g,"  for  "the  king." 

An  Obelisk,  which  is  qiarked  thus  t,  and  Parallels 
thus  II,  together  with  the  letters  of  the  Alphabet,  and 
figures,  arc  used  as  references  to  the  margin,  or  bottom 
of  the  page.  ;/ 

PARAGRAPHS. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  insert,  in  this  place,  a  few 
general  directions  respecting  the  division  of  a  composi- 
tion into  paragraphs. 

Different  subjects,  unless  they  are  very  short,  or  very 
numerous  in  small  compass,  should  be  separated  into 
paraojraphs. 

"When  one  subject  is  continued  to  a  considerable 
length,  the  larger  divisions  of  it  should  be  put  into  para- 
graphs. And  it  will  have  a  good  effect  to  form  the  breaks, 
when  it  can  properly  be  done,  at  sentiments  of  the  most 
weight,  or  that  call  for  peculiar  attention. 

The  facts,  premises,  and  conclusions,  of  a  subjects 
sometimes  naturally  point  out  the  separations  into  para- 
graphs: aftd  each  of  these,  when  of  great  length,  will 
agam  require  subdivisions  at  their  most  distinctive  parts> 

In  cases  which  require  a  connected  subject  to  bc» 
formed  into  several  paragraphs,  a  suitable  turn  of  ex- 
pression, exhibiting  the  connexion  of  the  broken  parts, 
will  give  beauty  and  force  to  the  division.  See  the  Oc- 
tavo Grammar, 

DIRECTIONS  respecting  the  use  of  capital  letters. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  begin  every  noun  witli 
8C  cajMtal:  but  as  this  practice  was  troublesome,  and  gave 
the  writing  or  printing  a  crowded  and  confused  appear- 
fOice,  it  lias  been  discontinued.  It  is,  however,  very 
proper  to  begin  with  a  capital, 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note, 
tr  any  other  piece  of  writing. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period;  and,  if  the  two  s^n- 


^48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

fences  are  totally  independent,  after  a  i^ote  of  interrogar- 
(ion  or  exclamation. 

But  if  a  number  of  interrogative  or  exclamatory  sen  - 
tences,  are  thrown  into  one  general  group;  or  if  the 
construction  of  the  latter  sentences  depends  on  the  fc-  - 
mer,  all  of  them,  except  the  first,  may  begin  with  a  small 
letter:  as,  "How  long,  ye  simple  ones,  will  ye  love  sim- 
plicity? and  the  scorners  delight  in  their  scorning?  and 
fools  hate  knowledge?"  "Alas!  how  difterent!  yet  ho\v 
like  the  same!" 

3.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity:  as,  "God,  Jehovah, 
the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Lord,  Providence, 
*fhc  Messiah,  the  Holy  Spirit." 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains, 
rivers,  ships:  as,  "George,  York,  the  Strand,  the  Alps.. 
7 he  Thames,  the  Seahorse." 

5;  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places: 
as,  ''Grecian,  Roman,  lEnglish,  French,  and  Italian." 

G.  The  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  after  a 
(  olon,  or  when  it  is  in  a  direct  form:  as,  "Always  re- 
tnember  this  ancient  maxim:  *Know  thyself.'"  '*Oui- 
,2;reat  Lawgiver  says,  *Take  up  thy  cross  daily,  and  fol- 
I'ow  me.'  "  But  when  a  quotation  is  brought  in  obliquely 
after  a  comma,  a  capital  is  unnecessary:  as,  "Solomon 
observes,  'that  pride  goes  before  destruction.'  " 

The  first  word  of  an  example  may  also  very  properly 
hegin  with  a  capital:  as,  "Temptation  proves  our  virtue.*' 

7.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles 
«f  books:  as,  "Johnson's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage;" "Thomson's  Seasons;"  "RoUin's  Ancient  His- 
tory." 

8.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

9.  The  pronoun  /,  and  the  interjection  O,  are  written 
in  capitals:  as,  "I  write;"  "Hear,  O  earth!" 

Other  words,  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with 
capitals,  when  they  are  remarkably  emphatical,  op  th« 
principal  subject  of  the  composition. 


(     2«     ) 

•APPENDIX. 

CONTAINING  RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS  FOR  ASSISTING 
YOUNG  PERSONS  TO  WRITE  WITH  PERSPICUITY  AND  AC- 
CURACY. TO  BE  STUDIED  AFTER  THEY  HAVE  ACQUIRED 
A  COMPETENT    KNOWLEDGE  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


PERSPICUITY 
IS  the  fundamental  quality  of  style:  a  quality  so  es- 
sential in  every  kind  of  writing,  that  for  the  want  of  it 
nothing  can  atone.  It  is  not  to  be  considered  as  merely 
a  sort  of  negative  virtue,  or  freedom  from  defect.  It  has 
higher  merit:  it  is  a  degree  of  positive  beauty.  We  are 
pleased  with  an  author,  and  consider  him  as  deserving 
praise,  who  frees  us  from  all  fatigue  of  searching  for 
lis  meaning;  who  carries  us  through  his  subject  with- 
'cut  any  embarrassment  or  confusion;  whose  style  flows 
always  like  a  limpid  stream,  through  which  we  see  t© 
tke  very  bottom. 

The  study  of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression 
consists  of  two  parts:  and  requires  attention,  first,  to 
^gle  Words  and  Phrasesf  and  then,  to  the  Cofistructio/i 
oj  Sentences. 

PART  I. 

Of  Perspicuity  and  Accuracy  of  Expression,   tviih 
respect  to  single  Words  and  Phrases* 
I'hese  qualities  of  style,   considered  with  regard  t© 
words  and  phrases,  requires  the  following  properties; 
PURITY,  propriety,  and  precision.  *" 

,       CHAPTER  I. 

OF  PURITY. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words, 
and  such  constructions,  as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the 
language  which  we  speak;  in  opposition  to  words  and 
phrases  that  are  taken  from  other  languages,  or  that 
are  ungrammatical,  obsolete,  new-coined,  or  used  with- 
out proper  authority.  All  such  words  and  phrases  as 
the  following  should  be  avoided:  Quoth  he;  I  wist  not; 
ireivhile;  behest;  selfsame;  delicatesse,  for  delicacy;  po^- 


250  APPENDIX.  [Propriety. 

iessc,  for  politeness;  hauteur,^  for  haughtiness^  incumber 
mentycoiinexityj  martyrised^  for  encumbrance,  connexion, 
martyred. 

Foreign  and  learned  words,  unless  where  necessity 
requires  them,  should  never  be  admitted  into  our  com- 
position. Barren  languages  may  need  such  assistance, 
but  ours  is  not  one  of  these.  A  multitude  of  Latin 
words,  in  particular,  have,  of  late,  been  poured  in  up- 
on pur  language.  On  some  occasions,  they  give  an 
appearance  of  elevation  and  dignity  to  style;  but  {hey 
often  render  it  stiff  and  apparently  forced.  In  generak 
a  plain,  native  style,  is  more  intelligible  to  all  readers; 
and,  by  a  proper  management  of  words,  it  canbemad^ 
as  strong  and  expressive  as  this  Latinised  English,  c 
any  foreign  idioms* 

CHAPTER  II 

OF  PROPRIETY. 

Propriety  of  language  is  the  selection  of  such  wortl-^ 
r<s  the  best  usage  has  appropriated  to  those  ideas, 
which  we  intend  to  express  by  them;  in  opposition  to 
low  expressions,  and  to  words  and  phrases  which  would, 
be  less  significant  of  the  ideas  that  we  mean  to  convey 
Style  may  be  pure,  that  is,  it  may  be  strictly  English, 
w  ithout  Scotticisms  or  Gallicisms,  or  ungrammatical. 
irregular  expressions  of  any  kind,  and  may,  neverthc 
less,  be  deficient  in  propriety:  for  the  words  may  be 
ill  chosen,  not  adapted  to  the  subject,  nor  fully  ex- 
pressive of  the  author's  sense. 

To  preserve  propriety,  therefore,  in  our  words  and: 
phrases,  we  must  avoid  low  expressions;  supply  word>^ 
/hat  are  wanting;  be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word  i- 
different  senses;  avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  phra- 
ses, equivocal  or  ambiguous  words,  unintelligible  expressions^ 
and  all  such  words  and  phrases  as  art  not  adapted  to  ov 
meaning* 

1.  Avoid  low  expressions:  such  as,  *'Topsy  turvy,  hni 
ly  burly,  pellmeU;  having  a  month's  mind  for  a  thing, 
currying  favour  with  a  personj  dancing  attendance  on 
the  great,*'  &c. 

"Meantime  the  Britons,  left  to  shift  for  themselves, 
were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence.'* 
Xht  phrase  "fe//  to  sMft  for  themsehjea,"  is  rather  alow 


;  iopriety.]  jperspicui'ty,  kc.  251 

j>hrase,  and  too  much  in  the  familiar  style  to  be  proj^er 
in  a  grave  treatise. 

2.  Supply  words  that  are  tvanting*  '^Arbitrary  power 
1  look  upon  as  a  greater  evil  than  anarchy  itself,  as' 
much  as  a  savage  is  a  happier  state  of  life  than  a  slave 
at  the  oar:"  it  should  have  been,  '*as  much  as  the  atatr. 

^f  a  savage  is  happier  than  that  of  a  slave  at  the  oar.' 
*'He  has  not  treated  this  subject  liberally,  by  the. 
views  of  others  as  well  as  his  ownj"  "By  adverting  Xo 
the  views  of  others,"  would  have  been  better.  *'This 
generous  action  greatly  increased  his  former  services;'' 
-it  should  have  been,  "greatly  increased  tlit  merit  of  his 
former  services. "  *'By  the  pleasures  of  the  imagina- 
tion or  fancy  (which  1  shall  use  promiscuously)  I  here 
mean/*  &c.  This  passage  ought  to  have  had  the  word 
**ternis"  supplied,  which  would  have  made  it  correct: 
*^tertns  which  I  shall  use  promiscuously." 

It  may  be  proper  in  this  place  to  observe,  that  ar\i-- 
cks  and  prepositions  are  sometimes  improperly  omit- 
ted; as  in  the  following  instances;  "How  immense  the 
niiference  between  the  pious  and  profanel*'  "Death  is 
the  common  lot  of  all;  of  good  men  and  bad."  They 
should  have  had  the  article  and  preposition  repeated: 
"How  immense  the  difference  between  the  pious  and 
Me  profane!"  "Death  is  the  common  lot  of  all;  ©/"good 
men  and  of  bad." 

The  repetition  of  articles  and  prepositions  is  propei*, 
•when  we  intend  to  point  out  the  objects  of  which  we 
speak,  as  distinguished  from  each  other,  or  in  contrast^ 
and  when  we  wish  that  the  reader's  attention  should 
rest  on  that  distinction:  as,  "Our  sight  is  at  once  the 
most  delightful,  and  the  most  useful  of  all  our  senses." 

3.  In  the  same  sentence^  be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word 
too  frequently^  nor  in  different  senses.  "One  may  have 
an  air  which  proceeds  from  a  just  sufficiency  and  know- 
dedge  of  the  matter  before  him,  wkich  may  naturatly 
produce  some  motions  of  his  head  and  body,  which 
might  become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar." 

I'he  pronoun  which  is  here  thrice  used,  in  such  a 
jiianner  as  to  throw  obscurity  over  the  sentence. 

"Gregory  favoured  the  undertaking,  forno  other 
^reason  than  this,  that  the  manager)  in  counten^Ce^ 


S5S  APPENDIX.  [Propriety. 

favoured  his  friend. "  It  should  have  been,  *  *resembled 
hiis  friend.'* 

"Charity  expands  our  hearts  in  love  to  God  and 
man:  it  is  by  the  virtue  of  charity  that  the  rich  are 
blessed  and  the  poor  supplied."  In  this  sentence,  the 
word  '^charity"  is  improperly  used  in  tvo  different 
senses;  for  the  highest  benevolence,  and  for  alms- 
giving. 

4.,  Avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  terrrs.  To  in- 
form those  who  do  not  understand  sea-phrases,  thai 
'■^We  tacked  to  the  larboard,  and  stood  off  to  sea,'- 
would  be  expressing  ourselves  very  obscurely,  Tech- 
nical phrases  not  being  in  current  use,  but  only  the  pe- 
culiar dialect  of  a  particular  class,  we  should  never  use 
them  but  when  we  know  they  will  be  understood, 

5.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  words.  The  follc^ving- 
-sentences  are  exceptionable  in  this  respect.     "A;,  for 

sucH*animals  as  are  mortal  or  noxious,  we  have  a  righ*:  to 
destroy  them."  '*I  long  since  learned  to  like  tiothiig  , 
but  what  you  do.""'  *'He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  tht 
crown,"  may  denote  either,  * 'Nothing  was  less  aimed 
a-t  by  him  than  the  crown,"  or,  * 'Nothing  inferior  to  \ 
the  crown  could  satisfy  his  ambition."  ^'' I  will  have, 
mercy,  and  not  sacrifice."  The  first  part  of  this  sen- 
tence denotes,  "I  will  exercise  mercy;"  whereas  it  is 
in  this  place  employed  to  signify,  "I  require  others 
to  exercise  it.'*  The  translation  should  therefore  have 
been  accommodated  to  these  different  meanings. ''They 
wfire  both  much  more  ancient  among  the  Persians, 
tslian  Zoroaster  or  Zerdusht.*'  The  or  in  this  sentenpe. 
is  equivocal.  It  serves  either  as  a  copulative  to  syno^ 
iiymous  words,  or  as  a  disjunctive  of  different  things. 
If,  therefore,  the  student  should  not  know  that  Zoro- 
aster and  Zerdusht  mean  the  same^person,  he  will  mis- 
take the  sense.  "The  rising  tomb  a  lofty  column  bore;" 
**And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addrest."  Did  the 
tomb  bear  the  colujnn,  or  the  column  the  tomb?  Did 
the  son  address  the  sire,  or  the  sire  the  son.^ 

6.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  words  or  phrases. 
**I  have  observed,**  says  Steele,  "that  the  superiority 
among  these  coffee-house  politicians,  proceed^  from  an 
opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion.*'  This  sentence,  con- 
sidered in  itself,  eyidently  conveys  no  meaning.  FirS't| 


fpopriety.]  perspicuity,  &c.  25S 

it  is  not  said  whose  opinion,  their  own,  or  that  of  oth- 
ers: Secondly,  it  is  not  said  what  opinion,  or  of  what 
sort,  favourable  or  unfavourable,  true  or  false,  but  iii 
general,  "an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion,"  which 
contains  no  definite  expression  of  any  meaning.  With 
the  joint  assistance  of  the  context,  reflection,  and  con- 
jecture, we  shall  perhaps  conclude  that  the  author  in- 
tended to  say;  *'That  the  rank  among  these  politicians 
was  determined  by  the  opinion  generally  entertained 
of  the  rank,  in  point  of  gallantry  and  fashion,  that 
each  of  them  had, attained." 

"This  temper  of  mind,"  says  an  author,  speaking  of 
humility,  "keeps  our  understanding  tight  about  us.'' 
Whether  the  author  had  any  meaning  in  this  expres- 
sion, or  what  it  was,  is  not  easy  to  determine. 

Sometimes  a  writer  runs  on  in  a  sj>ecious  verbosity, 
amusing  his  reader  with  synonymous  terms  and  iden- 
tical propositions,  well-turned  periods,  and  highsovmd- 
iug  words:  but  at  the  same  time,  using  those  words 
so  indefinitely,  that  the  reader  can  either  affix  no 
meaning  at  all  to  them,  or  may  affix  to  them  almosi 
any  meaning  he  pleases. 

"If  it  is  asked,"  says  a  late  writer,  "whence  arises 
the  harmony,  or  beauty  of  language?  what  are  the  rules 
for  obtaining  it?  the  answer  is  obvious.  Whatever  ren 
ders  a  period  sweet  and  pleasant,  makes  it  also  grace- 
ful. A  good  ear  is  the  gift  of  nature;  it  may  be  much 
improved,  but  not  acquired  by  art.  Whoever  is  pos- 
sessed of  it,  will  scarcely  need  dry  critical  precepts, 
to  enable  him  to  judge  of  a  true  rhythmus,  and  melody 
of  composition.  Just  numbers,  accurate  proportions, 
a  musical  symphony,  magnificent  figures,  and  that  de- 
^  corum  which  is  the  result  of  all  these,  are  unison  to 
the  human  mind." 

The  following  is  a  poetical  example  of  the  same  na- 
ture, in  which  there  is  scarcely  a  glimpse  of  meaning, 
though  it  was  composed  by  an  eminent  poet. 

I  From  harmony,  from  heavenly  harmony, 

This  universal  frame  beg^n: 

From  harmony  to  harmony 
Through  all  the  compass  of  the  notes  it  ran^ 
The  diapason  closing  full  in  man. 

In  general  it  may  be  said,  that  in  writings  of  iius 
If 


,254  APPENDIX.  pPropricty. 

stamp,  we  must  accept  of  sound  instead  of  sense;  be- 
ing assured,  that  if  we  meet  with  little  that  can  inform 
the  judgment,  we  shall  at  least  find  nothing  that  will 
offend  the  ear.  And  perhaps  this  is  one  reason  that 
we  pass  over  such  smooth  language,  without  suspect- 
ing that  it  contains  little  or  no  meaning.  In  order  to 
write  or  speak  clearly  and  intelligibly,  two  things  are 
especially  requisite:  one,  that  we  have  clear  and  dis- 
tinct ideas  of  our  subject:  and  the  other,  that  our  words 
be  approved  signs  of  those  ideas.  That  persons  who 
think  confusedly,  should  express  themselves  obscurely, 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at;  for  embarrassed,  obscure,  and 
feeble  sentences,  are  generally,  if  not  always,  the  re- 
sult of  embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  thought;  but 
that  persons  of  judgment,  who  are  accustomed  to 
scrutinize  their  ideas,  and  the  signification  of  their 
words,  should  sometimes  write  without  any  meaning, 
is,  at  first  sight,  matter  of  admiration.  This,  how- 
ever, when  further  considered,  appears  to  be  an  effect 
derived  from  the  same  cause,  indistinctness  of  concep- 
tion, and  inattention  to  the  exactimport  of  words.  The 
occasions  on  which  we  are  most  apt  to  speak  and  write 
in  this  unintelligible  manner,  are  the  three  following. 

The  Jirst  is,  where  there  is  an  exuberance  of  meta- 
phor. Writers  who  are  fond  of  the  metaphoric  style, 
are  generally  disposed  to  continue  it  too  long,  and  to 
pursue  it  too  far. 

They  are  often  misled  by  a  desire  of  flourishing  on 
the  several  properties  of  a  metaphor  which  they  have 
ushered  into  the  discourse,  without  taking  the  trouble 
to  examine  whether  there  are  any  qualities  in  the  sub- 
ject, to  which  these  properties  can,  with  justice  and 
perspicuity,  be  applied.  The  following  instance  of  this 
sort  of  writing  is  from  an  author  of  considerable  emi- 
nence. "Men  must  acquire  a  very  peculiar  and  strong 
habit  of  turning  their  view  inward,  in  order  to  explore 
the  interior  regions  and  recesses  of  the  mind,  the  hol- 
low caverns  of  deep  thought,  the  private  seats  of  fan- 
cy, and  the  wastes  and  wildernesses,  as  well  as  the  more 
fruitful  and  cultivated  tracts  of  this  obscure  climate." 
A  most  wonderful  way  of  telling  us,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
trace  the  operations  of  the  mind.  The  author  having 
detcHHined  to  represent  the  human  mind  under  the 


Propriety.]  perspicuity,  &c.  255 

metaphor  of  a  country,  revolved  in  his  thoughts  the  ' 
various  objects  which  might  be  found  in  a  country, 
without  considering  .whether  there  are  any  things  in  ^ 
the  mind  properly  analogous  to  these.  Hence  the 
strange  parade  he  makes  with  regions  and  repesses^  hoi- 
low  caverns  and  private  seats,  wastes  and  wildernesses, 
fruitful  2i\\d.  cultivated  tracts;  words  which,  though  they 
have  a  precise  meaning,  as  applied  to  country,  have 
no  definite  signification,  as  applied  to  mind. 

The  second  occasion  of  our  being  apt  to  v/rite  unin- 
telligibly, is  that  wherein  the  terms  most  frequently 
occurring,  denote  things  which  are  of  a  complicated 
•^ature,  and  to  which  the  mind  is  not  sufficiently  fa- 
ailiarised.  Of  these  the  instances  are  numberless  in 
every  tongue;  such  as,  Government,  church,  state, 
constitution,  power,  legislature,  jurisdiction,  &c. 

The  third  and  principal  occasion  of  unintelligible 
writing,  is,  when  the  terms  employed  are  very  abstract, 
and  consequently  of  very  extensive  signification.  Thus 
the  word  lion  is  more  distinctly  apprehended  by  the 
m,ind  than  the  word  beast,  beast  than  animal,  animal 
than  being. 

The  7th  and  last  rule  for  preserving  propriety  in  our 
words  and  phrases,  is,  to  avoid  all  those  which  are  not 
"  adapted  to  the  ideas  we  mean  to  communicate;  or  which  are 
less  significant  than  others,  of  those  ideas.  *'He  feels  any 
sorrow  that  can  arrive  at  man;"  better  ^''happen  to  man." 
*'The  conscience  q{  approving  one's  self  a  benefactor, 
lis  the  best  recompense  for  being  so;"  it  should  have 
.phetn  ^'c&nsciousness.''^  ''He  firmly  believed  the  divine 
preempt,  'There  is  not  a  sparrow  falls  to  the  ground,'  " 
&c.     It  should  have  been  ^^ doctrine." 

"It  is  but  opening  the  eye,  and  the  scene  enters.'* 
A  see^e  cannot  be  said  to  enter:  an  actor  enters;  but  a 
scene  appears  or  presents  itself. 

"We  immediately  assent  to  the  beauty  of  an  object, 
without  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  it:"  it  is  proper 
to  say,  that  we  assent  to  the  truth  of  a  proposition;  but 
it  cannot  so  well  be  said,  that  we  assent  to  the  beauty  of 
an  object,  McknowkdgB  would  have  expressed  the  sense 
ivith  propriety. 

"The  sense  of  feeling,  can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion 
of  extension^  shape,  and  all  other  ideas  that  enter  at  the 


256  APKENDix^  [PfecisioB* 

eye,  except  colours. "  Extension  2Lnd  shape  cdin,  vfith 
no  propriety,  be  called  ideas;  they  are  properties  of 
matter^  Neither  is  it  accurate,  to  speak  of  any  sense 
skiving  us  a  notion  of  ideas:,  our  senses  give  us  the  ideas 
themselves.  The  meaning  of  the  sentence  would  have 
been  proper,  and  much  clearer,  if  the  author  had  ex- 
pressed himself  thus:  "The  sense  of  feeling  can,  in- 
deed, give  us  the  idea  of  extension,  figure,  and  all  the 
other  properties  of  matter,  which  are  perceived  by  the 
eye,  except  colours." 

"The  covetous  man  never  has  a  sufficiency;  al- 
though he  has  what  is  enough  for  nature,"  is  much 
inferior  to, ."  The  covetous  man  never  has  enough: 
although  he  has  what  is  sufficient  for  nature.'* 

'•A  traveller  observes  the  most  striking  objects  he 
sees;  a  general  remarks  all  the  motions  of  his  enemyj" 
better  thus;  "A  traveller  remarks,*  Sec;  "A  general 
observes,"  &c.  ''*This  measure  enlarged  his  school,  and 
obliged  him  to  increase  the  buildings;"  it  should  be^ 
^Hncreased  his  school;"  and  ^'enlarge  the  buildings." 

"He  applied  a  medicine  before  the  poison  had  time 
to  work:"  better  thus:  "He  applied  an  antidote,''^  See. 

"The  poison  of  a  suspicious  temper  frequently 
throws  out  its  bad  qualities,  on  all  who  are  within  its 
reach;"  better,  "throws  out  its  malignant  qualities.'* 

"I  will  go  except  I  should  be  ill;"  "I  saw  them  all 
unless  two  or  three:"  corrected  thus:  ' 'unless  1  should 
be  ill;"   ''except  two  or  three." 

A  selection  of  words  and  phrases,  which  are  pecu- 
liarly expressive  of  the  ideas  we  design  to  communi- 
cate; or  v/hich  are  as  particular  and  determinate  in 
their  signification,  as  is  consistent  with  the  nature  arx^ 
the  scope  of  the  discourse;  possesses  great  beauty 
and  cannot  fail  to  produce  a  good  effect.  - 

CHAPTER    III. 

OF  PRECISION. 

Precision  is  the  third  requisite  of  perspicuity  with 
respect  to  words  and  phrases.  It  signifies  retrenching 
superfluities,  and  pruning  the  expression,  so  as  to  ex- 
hibit neither  more  nor  less  than  an  exact  copy  of  the 
person's  idea  who  uses  it. 

The  words  used  to  express  ideas  may  be  faulty  m 


Precision.]  perspiguitv,  8cc.  357 

three  respects.  1st,  They  may  not  exf>ress  the  idea 
which  the  author  intends,  but  some  other  which  only 
resembles  it;  secondly,  They  may  express  that  idea, 
but  not  fully  and  completely;  thirdly,  They  may  ex- 
press it,  together  with  somethint^-  more  than  is  intend- 
ed. Precision  stands  opposed  to  these  three  faults, 
but  chiefly  to  the  last.  Propriety  implies  a  freedom 
from  the  two  former  faults.  The  words  which  areused 
may  be  proper;  that  is,  thej?  may  express  the  idea  in- 
tended, and  they  may  express  it  fully;  but  to  be  j^re- 
'W,  signifies  that  they  express  that  idea  and  no  more. 
The  use  and  importance  of  precision  may  be  dedu 
<;ed  from  the  nature  of  the  human  mind.  It  never  can 
view,  clearly  and  distinctly,  more  than  one  object  at  a 
time.  If  it  must  look  at  two  or  three  together,  espe- 
cially objects  that  have  resemblance  or  connexion,  it 
finds  itself  confused  and  embarrassed.  It  cannot  clearly 
perceive  in  Avhat  they  agree,  and  in  what  they  differ. 
Thus,  were  any  object,  suppose  some  animal,  to  be 
presented  to  my  view,  of  whose  structure  I  wished  to 
form  a  distinct  notion,  I  should  desire  all  its  trappings 
to  be  taken  off;-  I  should  require  it  to  be  brought  be- 
fore me  by  itself,  and  to  stand  alone,  that  there  might 
be  nothing  to  divide  my  attention.  The  same  is  the 
rase  with  words.  If,  when  any  one  would  inform  me 
of  his  meaning,  he  also  tells  me  more  than  what  con- 
veys it;  if  he  joins  foreign  circumstances  to  the  prin- 
cipal objects;  if,  by  unnecessarily  varying  the  expres- 
sion, he  shifts  the  point  of  view,  and  makes  me  sec 
sometimes  the  object  itself,  and  sometimes  another 
ihing  that  is  connected  with  it,  he  thereby  obliges  me 
to  look  on  several  objects  at  once,  and  I  lose  sight  of 
the  principal.  He  loads  the  animal  he  is  showing  me, 
with  so  many  trappings  and  collars,  that  I  cannot  dis- 
tinctly view  it;  or  he  brings  so  many  of  the  same  spe- 
cies before  me,  somewhat  resembling,  and  yet  some- 
what differing,  that  I  see  none  of  them  clearly.  When 
an  author  tells  me  of  his  hero's  courage  in  the  day  of 
battle,  the  expression  is  precise,  and  I  understand  it 
fully:  but  if,  from  the  desire  of  multiplying  words,  he 
should  praise  his  courage  and  fortitude;  at  the  mo- 
ment he  joins  these  words  together,  my  idea  begins  to 
vraver.  He  means  to  express  one  qualitv  more  strongly, 
Y  %  . 


258  APpj-NDix.  [Precisioa, 

but  be  is  in  truth  expressing  two:  courage  resists  dan- 
gerj  fortitude  supports  pain.  The  occasion  of  exert- 
ing each  of  these  qualities  is  different;  and  being  led 
to  think  of  both  together,  when  only  one  of  them 
should  be  considered^  my  view  is  rendered  unsteady, 
and  my  conception  of  the  object  indistinct. 

All  subjects  do  not  equally  require  precision.  It  is 
sufficient,  on  many  occasions,  that  we  have  a  general 
view  of  the  meaning.  The  subject,  perhaps,  is  of  the 
iyiown  and  familiar  kuid,  and  we  are  in  no  hazard  of 
mistaking  the  sense  of  the  author,  though  every  word 
^vhich  he  uses  is  not  precise  and  exact. 

Many  authors  offend  against  this  rule  of  precision. 
\  considerable  one,  in  describing  a  bad  action,  ex- 
presses himself  thus:  ^'It  is  to  remove  a  good  and  or- 
derly affection,  and  to  introduce  an  ill  or  disorderly 
one;  to  commit  an  action  that  is  ill,  immoral,  and  un- 
just; to  do  ill,  or  to  act  in  prejudice  of  integrity,  goo<| 
nature,  and  worth. " 

A  crowd  of  unmeaning  or  useless  words  is'brought 
together  by,  some  authors,  who,  afraid  of  expressing 
themselves  in  a  common  and  ordinary  manner,  and 
allured  by  an  appaarance  of  splendour,  surround  every 
thing  which  they  mean  to  say  with  a  certain  copious 
loquacity. 

The  great  scarce  of  a  loose  style  in  opposition  to 
precision,  is  the  injudicious  use  of  the  words  termed 
synonymous^  They  are  called  synonymous,  because 
they  agree  in  expressing  one  principal  idea;  but,  for 
the  most  part,  if  not  always,  they  express  it  with  some 
diversity  in  the  circumstances. 

The  following  instances  show  a  difference  in  the 
meaning  of  words  reputed  synonymous,  and  point  out 
the  use  of  attending,  with  care  and  strictness,  to  the 
exact  import  of  words. 

Custom,  habit. — Custom,  respects  the  action:  habiJ, 
the  actor.  By  custom,  we  mean  the  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  act;  by  habit,  the  effect  which  that 
repetition  produces  on  the  mind  or  body.  By  the 
custom  of  walking  often  in  the  streets,  one  acquires  a 
habit  of  idleness. 

Pftrfc,  vawVy.— Pride  makes  us  esteem  ourselyeat 
( . 


Precision.]  perspicuity,  &c,  259 

vanity  makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others.  It  is  just 
to  say,  that  a  man  is  too  proud  to  be  vain. 

Haughtiness,  disdain. — Haughtiness  is  founded  on 
the  high  opinion  we  entertain  of  ourselves;  disdain, 
on  the  low  opinion  we  have  of  others. 

Oniy,  alone. — Only,  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of 
the  same  kind;  alone,  imports  being  accompanied  by 
no  other.  An  only  child,  is  one  that  has  neither  bro- 
ther nor  sister;  a  child  alone,  is  one  who  is  left  by 
Itself.  There  is  a  difference,  therefore,  in  precise  lan- 
guage, between  these  two  phrases:  ''Virtue  only  makes 
us  happy;"  and  "Virtue,  alone  makes  us  happy.'* 

Wisdom,  prudence. — Wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and 
yX  what  is  most  proper.  Prudence  prevents  our 
speaking  or  acting  improperly. 

Entire,  complete. — A  thing  is  entire,  by  wanting  none 
of  its  parts;  complete,  by  wanting  none  of  the  appen- 
dages that  belong  to  it.  A  man  may  have  an  entire 
house  to  hiriiself,  and  yet  not  have  one  complete  apart- 
ment. 

Surprised,  astonished,  amazed,  confounded. — I  am  sur- 
pri-sed  with  what  is  new  or  unexpected;  I  am  asto- 
liished  at  what  is  vast  or  great;  I  am  amazed  at  what 
is  incomprehensible;  I  am  confounded  by  what  is 
shocking  or  terrible. 

Tranquillity,  peace,  cairn. — Tranquillity  resjjects  a  si- 
niation  free  from  trouble,  considered  in  itself;  peace, 
the  same  situation  with  respect  to  any  causes  that 
might  interrupt  it;  calm,  with  regard  to.  a  disturbed 
situation  going  before  or  following  it.  ^  A  good  man 
enjoys  tranquillity,  in  himself;  peace,  with  others? 
and  calm,  after  the  storm. 

These  are  some  of  the  numerous  instances  of  words, 
in  our  language,  whose  significations  approach,  but 
are  not  precisely  the  same.  The  more  the  distinction 
in  the  meaning  of  such  words  is  attended  to,  the  more 
clearly  and  forcibly  shall  we  speak  or  write.  It  may 
not,  on  all  occasions,  be  necessary  to  pay  a  great  deal 
of  attention  to  very  nice  distinctions;  yet  the  foregoing 
instances  show  the  utility  of  some  general  care  to  un- 
derstand the  distinct  import  of  our  words. 

While  we  are  attending  to  precision,  we  must  be  on 
our  guard,  lest,  from  the  desire  of  pruning  too  cloself^ 


^SO  APJBNDix.  [PrecisioCo 

we  retrench  all  copiousness.  Scarcely  in  any  language 
are  there  two  words  that  convey  precisely  the  same 
idea;  a  person  thoroughly  conversant  in  the  propriety 
of  the  language,  will  always  be  able  to  observe  some- 
thing that  distinguishes  them.     As  they  are  like  dif- 
ferent shades  of  the  same  colour,   an  accurate  writer  I 
can  employ  them  to  great  advantage,  by  using  them-' 
so  as  to  heighten  and  complete  the  object  which  he"'- 
presents  to  us.  He  supplies  by  one  what  was  wanting  V 
in  the  other,  to  the  strength,  or  to  the  finishing,  of  the  ' 
image  which  he  means  to  exhibit.     But,  for  this  pur 
pose,  he  must  be  attentive  to  the  choice  of  his  words, 
and  not  employ  them  carelessly,  merely  for  the  sakcof^; 
filling  up  a  period,   or  of  rounding  or  diversifying  his 
language,   as  if  their  signification  were  exactly  the 
same,  while  in  truth  it  is  not.     To  unite  copiousness 
and  precision,  to  be  full  and  easy,  and  at  the  same  time 
correct  and  exact  in  the  choice  of  every  word,   is  no 
doubt  one  of  the  highest  and  most  difficult  attainments 
in  writing.        ' 

PART  II. 

♦>F    rERSPICUITY    AND    ACCURACY    OF    EXPRESSION,    WITF 
RESPEC^    TO    THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    SENTENCES. 

Sentences,  in  general,  should  neither  be  very  long, 
nor  very  short:  long  ones  require  close  attention  to 
make  u%  clearly  perceive  the  connexion  of  the  several 
parts;  and  short  ones  are  apt  to  break  the  sense,  and 
weaken  the  connexion  of  thought.  Yet  occasional!' 
Ihey  may  both  be  used  with  force  and  propriety^  a 
may  be  seen  in  the  following  sentences. 

••'If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of 
others  as  well  as  your  own;  if  you  think  how  few  are 
born  with  honour,  and  how  many  die  without  name  or 
children;  how  little  beauty  we  see,  and  how  few  friends 
•we  hear  of;  how  much  poverty,  and  how  many  diseases 
there  are  in  the  world;  you  will  fall  down  upon  your 
knees,  and  instead  of  repining  at  one  affliction,  will  ad- 
mire so  many  blessings  which  you  have  received  from 
the  Divine  hand."  .  This  is  a  sentence  composed  of 
several  members  linked  together,  and  hanging  upon 
one  another,  so  that  the  sense  of  the  whole  is  not 
brought  out  till  the  close.  The  following  is  an  exam- 
ple of  one  in  which  the  sense  is  formed  into  short,  in- 


Clearness.]  perspicuity^  &c.  2$i- 

dependent  propositions,  each  co^iplete  within  itself, 
*'I  confess,  it  was  want  of  consideration  that  made  me 
an  author.-  I  wrote,  because  it  amused  me.  I  correct- 
ed, because  it  was  as  pleasant  to  me  to  correct  as  to 
vvrite.  I  published,  because  I  was  told  I  might  please 
such  as  it  was  a  credit  to  please." 

A  train  of  sentences,  constructed  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  with  the  same  number  of  members,  should 
iiever  be  allowed  to  succeed  one  another.  A  long  suc- 
cession of  either  long  or  short  sentences  should  also 
be  avoided;  for  the  ear  tires  of  either  of  them  when 
too  long  continued. 

Whereas,  by  a  proper  mixture  of  long  and  short  pe- 
riods, and  of  periods  variously  constructed,  not  only 
the  ear  is  gratified;  but  animation  and  force  are  given 
to  our  style. 

We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  things  most  essen- 
tial to  an  accurate  and  a  perfect  sentence.  They  ap- 
pear to  be  the  four  following:  1.  clearness;  2.  unity; 
3.  strength;   4.  a  judicious  use  of  the  figures  of 

SPEECH. 

chapter  I. 
OF  THE  CLEARNESS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

Purity,  propriety,  and  precision,  in  words  and 
phrases  separately  considered,  have  already  been  ex- 
plained, and  shown  to  be  necessary  to  perspicuous 
and  accurate  writing.  The  just  relation  of  sentences, 
and  the  parts  of  sentences,  to  one  another,  and  the  due 
arrangement  of  the  whole,  are  the  subjects  whicJi  re- 
main to  be  discussed. 

The  first  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence  is  clearness. 

Whatever  leaves  the  mind  in  any  sort  of  suspense 
as  to  the  meaning,  ought  to  be  avoided.  Obscurity 
arises  from  two  causes;  either  from  a  wrong  choice  of 
words,  or  a  wrong  arrangement  of  them.  The  choice 
of  words  and  phrases,  as  far  as  regards  perspicuity, 
has  been  already  considered.  The  disposition  of  them 
comes  now  under  consideration. 

The  first  thing  to  be  studied  here,  is  grammatical 
propriety.  But  as  the  grammar  of  our  language  is 
comparatively  not  extensive,  there  may  be  an  obscure 
order  of  words,  where  there  is  no  transgression  of  any 
g^rammatical  rule.     The  relations  of  words,  or  mem* 


252  APPENDIX.  [Precision... 

bers  of  a  period,  are,  with  us,  ascertained  only  by  the 
position  in  which  they  stand. 

Hence  a  capital  rule  in  the  arrangement  of  sentences 
is,  that  the  words  or  members,  most  clearly  related, 
should  be  placed  in  the  sentence  as  near  to  each  other 
as  possible,  so  as  to  make  their  mutual  relation  clearly 
appear.  It  will  be  proper  to  produce  some  instances, 
in  order  to  show  the  importance  of  this  rule. 

1.  In  the  position  of  adverbs,  "The  Romans  under- 
stood liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we. "  These  words  are 
capable  of  two  different  senses,  according  as  the  em- 
phasis, in  reading  them,  is  laid  upon  liberty,  or  upon 
at  least.  The  words  should  have  been  thus  arranged; 
*'The  Romans  understood  liberty  as  well,  at  least,  as 
we." 

''Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism,  or 
atheism."  Is  it  meant  that  theism  is  capable  of  nothing 
else  besides  being  opposed  to  polytheism,  or  atheism? 
This  is  what  the  words  literally  import,  through  the 
wrong  placing  of  the  adverb  only.  It  should  have  been, 
"Theism  can  be  opposed  only  to  polytheism  or  atheism.'* 

"By  the  pleasures  Of  the  imagination,  I  mean  only 
such  pleasures  as  arise  originally  from  sight. "  When  it 
is  said,  "/  mean  only  sueh pleasures,^ ^  it  may  be  remark- 
ed, that  the  adverb  only  is  not  properly  placed.  It  is  not 
intended  here  to  qualify  the  word  mean,  hixt  such  pleasures; 
and  therefore  sliould  have  been  placed  in  as  close  con- 
nexion as  possible  withthe  word  which  it  limits  or  qua- 
lifies. The  style  becomes  more  clear  and  neat,  whefi  the 
words^re  arranged  thus:  "By  the  pleasures  of  the  ima- 
gination, I  mean  such  pleasures  only  as  arise  fron 
sight." 

In  the  following  sentence,  the  word  more  is  not  in  its 
proper  place.  "There  is  not  perhaps  any  real  beauty  or 
deformity  more  in  one  piece  of  maUer  than  another." 
The  phrase  ought  to  have  stood  thus:  "Beauty  or  de- 
formity in  one  piece  of  matter  more  than  in  another." 

2.  In  the  position  of  circumstances,  and  of  particular 
members. 

An  author,  in  his  dissertation  on  parties,  thus  ex- 
presses himself:  "Are  these  designs  which  any  man, 
who  is  born  a  Briton,  in  any  circumstances,  in  any  si- 
tuation, ought  to  be  ashamed  or  afraid' to  avow?"  Here 


^Precision.]  pershcuity,  &c.  263 

we  are  left  at  a  loss,  whether  these  words,  **in  any  cir- 
cumstances, in  any  situation,"  are  connected  with  '*a 
man  born  in  Britain,  in  any  circumstances  or  situation," 
or  with  that  man's  ^'avowing  his  designs  in  any  circum- 
stances or  situation  into  which  he  may  be  brought. "  As 
,  it  is  probable  that  the  latter  was  intended,  the  arrange- 
I  raentx)ught  to  have  been  conducted  thus:  *'Are  these 
designs  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a  Briton,  ought 
to  be  ashamed  or  afraid,  in  any  situation,  in  any  cir- 
cumstances, to  avow?" 

The  following  is  another  instance  of  a  wrong  ar- 
rangement of  circumstances.  "A  great  stone  that  I 
'  happened  to  find,  after  a  long  search,  by  the  »ea*shore, 
served  me  for  an  anchor."  One  would  think  that  the 
search  was  confined  to  the  sea  shore:  but  as  the  mean- 
ing is,  that  the  great  stone  was  found  by  the  sea  shore, 
the  period  ought  to  have  run  thus:  *'A  great  stoiie, 
that,  after  a  long  search,  I  happened  to  find  by  the  sea 
shore,  served  me  for  an  anchor." 

It  is  a  rule,  too,  never  to  crowd  many  circumstances 
together,  but  rather  to  intersperse  them  in  different 
parts  of  the  sentence,  joined  to  the  principal  woixis  on 
which  they  depend.  For  instance:  "What  I  had  the 
opportunity  of  mentioning  to  my  friend,  sometime  ago, 
in  conversation,  was  not  a  new  thought."  These  two 
circumstances,  ^'sometime  ago,'''  and  **m  conversation,''' 
which  are  here  put  together,  would  have  had  a  better 
effect  disjoined,  thus:  "What  I  had  the  opportunity, 
sometime  ago,  of  mentioning  to  my  friend  in  conver- 
sation, was  not  a  new  thought." 

Here  follows  an  example  of  the  wrong  arrangement 
of  a  member  of  a  sentence.  "The  minister  of  state 
who  grows  less  by  his  elevation,  like  a  little  statue  placed 
©n  a  mighty  pedestal,  will  always  hafe  his  jealousy 
strong  about  him."  Here,  so  far  as  can  be  gathered 
from  the  arrangement,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  ob- 
ject introduced,  by  way  of  simile,  relates  to  what  goes 
before,  or  to  what  follows.  The  ambiguity  is  removed 
by  the  following  order:  *'The  minister  of  state  who, 
like  a  little  statue  placed  on  a  mighty  pedestal,  grows 
less  by  his  elevation,  will  always,"  Sec. 

Words  expressing  things  connected  in  the  thought, 
ought  to  be  placed  as  near  together  as  possible,  even 


264  APPENDIX.  [Clearness. 

when  their  separation  wo«  Id  convey  no  ambiguity.  This 
will  be  seen  in  the  following  passages  from  Addison. 
**For  the  Etngiish  are  naturally  fanciful,  and  very  often 
disposed  by  that  gloominess  and  melancholy  of  temper, 
which  are  so  frequent  in  our  nation,  to  many  wild  notions 
and  extravagancies,  to  which  others  are  not  so  liable.  *" 
Here  the  verb  or  assertion  is,  by  a  pretty  long  circuni 
stance,  separated  from  the  subject  to  which  it  refers. 
This  might  have  been  easily  prevented,  by  placing  the 
circumstance  before  the  verb,  thus:  *'For  the  English 
are  naturally  fanciful,  and  by  that  gloominess  and  me- 
lancholy of  temper  which  are  so  frequent  in  our  nation, 
are  ofteli  ^sposed  to  many  wild  notions,"  &c. 

''For  as  no  mortal  author,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and 
vicissitude  of  things,  knows  to  what  use  his  works 
may,  some  time  or  other  be  applied,"  Sec.  Better  thus: 
'''For  as,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and  vicissitude  of  things, 
210  mortal  author  knows  to  what  use,  some  time  or 
other,  his  works  may  be  applied,"  Sec. 

From  these  examples,  the  following  observations  will 
occur:  that  a  circumstance  ought  never  to  be  placed  be- 
tween two  capital  members  of  a  period;  but  either  be- 
tween the  parts  of  the  member  to  which  it  belongs,  or  in 
such  a  manner  as  will  confine  it  to  its  proper  member. 
When  the  sense  admits  it,  the  sooner  a  circumstance  is 
introduced,  generally  speaking,  the  better,  that  the  ntore 
important  and  significant  words  may  possess  the  last 
place,  quite  disencumbered.  The  following  sentence 
is,  in  this  respect,  faulty.  *'The  emperor  was  so  in- 
tent on  the  establishment  of  his  absolute  power  in 
Hungary,  that  he  exposed  the  empire  doubly  to  deso- 
lation and  ruin  for  the  sake  of  it."  Better  thus:  "That, 
for  the  sake  of  it,  he  exposed  the  empire  doubly  to 
desolation  and  fuin." 

This  appears  to  be  a  proper  place  to  observe,  tha' 
when  different  things  have  an  obvious  relation  to  eacii 
other,  in  respect  to  the  order  of  nature  or  time,  thut 
order  should  be  regarded,  in  assigning  them  their  places 
in  the  sentence;  unless  the  scope  of  the  passageb  re- 
quire it  to  be  varied.  The  conclusion  of  the -folio  win  t^ 
lines  is  inaccurate  in  this  respect:  '*But  stiU  there  will 
be  such  a  mixture  of  delight,  as  is  proportioned  to  the 
de^ret  in  which  apy  obc  of  these  quaUncations  is  most 


^^Cfearncss.]  pehspicuity,  Sec.  26r> 

conspicuous  and  prevailing."  The  order  in  which  the 
two  last  words  are  placed,  should  have  been  reversed, 
and  made  to  stand,  prevailing  and  conspicuous. — They 
are  conspicuous^  because  they  prevail. 

The  following  sent<.'nce  is  a  beautiful  example  of 
strict  conformity  to  this  rule.  '*Our  sight  fills  the  mind 
with  th-e  largest  variety  of  ideas,  converses  with  its 
objects  at  the  greatest  distance,  and  continues  the 
longest  in  action,  without  being  tired  or  satiated  witli 
its  proper  enjoyments."  This  passage  follows  the  oi 
der  of  nature.  First,  we  have  the  variety  of  objects 
mentioned,  which  sight  furnishes  to  the  mind;  next. 
we  have  the  action  of  sight  on  those  objects;  and  lastly, 
we  have  the  time  and  continuance  of  its  action.  No 
order  could  be  more  natural  or  exact. 

The  order  which  we  now  i^commend,"  is,  iu  single 
words- especially,  frequently  violated  for  the  sake  of 
better  sound;  but,  perhaps  in  no  instances,  without  a. 
deviation  from  the  line  of  strict  propriety, 

3.  In  the  disposition  of  the  relative  pronouns.,  who. 
which,  what,  whose,  a;nd  of  aU  those  particles  ivhich  express 
the  connexion  of  the  parts  of  speech  idth  one  a?iother. 

A  small  error  in  the  position  of  these  words  rnay  cloud 
the  meaning  of  the  whole  sentence;  and  even  v/here  the 
meaning  is  intelligible,  Ave  always  find  something  awk- 
ward and  disjointed  in  the  structure  of  the  sentence, 
when  these  relatives  are  out  of  their  proper  place. 
**This  kind  of  wit,"  says  an  author,  "\yas  very  much 
in  vogue  among  our  countrymen.,  about  an  age  or  two 
ago;  who  did  not  practise  it  for  any  oblique  reason, 
but  purely  for  the  sake  of  being  witty."  We  are  at 
no  loss  about  the  meaning  here;  but  the  construction 
would  evidently  be  mended  by  disposing  the  circum- 
stance, "about  an  age  or  two  ago,"  in  such  a  manner 
as  not  to  separate  the  I'elative  ivho  from  its  antecedent 
our  countrymen;  in  this  way:  **About  an  age  or  two 
ago,  this  kind  of  wit  was  very  much  in  vogue  among 
our  countrymen,  who  did  not  practise  it,"  Sec. 

The  following  passage  is  still  more  censurable.  "It 
is  folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents 
of  life,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  which  nothing  can  pro- 
tect us  against,  but  the  good  providence  of  our  Creator.'' 
Which  always  refers  grammatical! v  to  the  suljstanu- 
Z  '  ^ 


266  APPE5IMX.  [Unity.' 

immediately  preceding;  and  that,  in  the  instance  just 
mentioned,  is  ''treasures."  The  sentence  ought  to 
iiave  stood  thus:  "It  is  folly  to  pretend,  by  heaping  up 
treasures,  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of 
life,  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,"  Sec. 

With  regard  to  relatives,  it  may  be  further  observed, 
that  obscurity  often  arises  from  the  too  frequent  repe- 
tition of  them,  particularly  of  the  pronouns  tuAo  and 
they.f  and  them  and  theirs,  when  we  have  occasion  to 
refer  to  different  persons;  as  in  the  following  sentence 
of  Tillotson.  '*Men  look  with  an  evil  eye  upon  the 
good  that  is  in  others,  and  think  that  their  reputation 
obscures  them,  and  their  commendable  qualities  stand 
in  their  light;  and  therefore  tfiey  do  what  they  can  to 
cast  a  cloud  over  them,  that  the  bright  shining  of  their 
virtues  may  not  obscure  them.'*  This  is  altogether 
careless  writing.  When  we  find  these  personal  pro- 
nouns crowding  too  fast  upon  us,  we  have  often  no 
method  left,  but  to  throw  the  whole  sentence  into  some 
other  form,  which  may  avoid  those  frequent  references 
to  persons  who  have  before  been  mentioned. 

To  have  the  relation  of  every  word  and  member  of 
a  sentence  marked  in  the  most  proper  and  distinct 
manner,  not  only  gives  clearness  to  it,  but  makes  the 
mind  pass  smoothly  and  agreeably  along  all  the  parts 
of  it. — See  the  Appendix  /o7i^c  Exercises. 

CHAPTER    II. 

OF  THE  UNITY  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

The  second  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is  its 
Unity, 

In  every  composition,  there  is  always  some  connecting 
principle  among  the  parts.  Some  one  object  must  reign 
and  be  predominant.  But  most  of  all,  in  a  single  sen- 
tence, is  required  the  strictest  unity.  For  the  very 
nature  of  a  sentence  implies  that  one  proposition  is 
expressed.  It  may  consist  of  parts,  indeed,  but  these 
parts  must  be  so  closely  bound  together,  as  to  mak<^ 
the  impression  upon  the  mind  of  one  object,  not  oi 
many.  To  preserve  this  unity  of  a  sentence,  Xhv.  fol- 
lowing rules  must  be  observed. 

In  the  Jirst  place,  During  the  course  of  the  sentence^ 
the  scene  should  be  changed  as  Utile  as  possible.  We  should 
not  be  hurried  by  sudden  transitions  from  person  to 


Unity.]  •  PEasprpuiTY,   &c,  267* 

person,  nor  from  subject  to  subject.  There  is  com- 
monly, in  every  sentence,  some  person  or  thing  which 
is  the  governing  word.  This  should  be  continued  so, 
if  possible,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  it. 

The  following  sentence  varies  from  this  rule:  * 'After 
we  came  to  anchor,  they  put  me  on  shore,  where  I  wag 
welcomed  by  all  my  friends,  who  received  me  with  the 
greatest  kindness."  In  this  sentence,  though  the  objects 
contained  in  it  have  a  sufficient  connexion  with  each 
other,  yet,  by  this  manner  of  representing  them,  by 
shifting  so  often  both  the  place  and  the  person,  ive  afid 
ihey,  and  /and  laho,  they  appear  in  so  disunited  a  view, 
that  the  sense  of  connexion  is  much  impaired.  The 
sentence  is  restored  to  its  proper  unity,  by  turning  it 
after  the  following  manner.  ''Having  come  to  an  an- 
chor, I  was  put  on  shore,  where  I  was  v/elcomed  by  all 
my  friends,  and  received  with  the  greatest  kindness." 

Here  follows  another  instance  of  departure  from  the 
rule.  "The  sultan  being  dangerously  wounded,  they 
carried  him  to  his  tent:  and,  upon  hearing  of  the  defeat 
of  his  troops,  they  put  him  into  a  litter,  which  trans- 
ported him  to  a  place  of  safety,  at  the  distance  of  about 
fifteen  leagues."  Better  thus:  "The  sultan  being  dan- 
gerously wounded,  was  carried  to  his  tentj  and,  on 
hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  was  put  into  a  lit- 
ter, and  transported  to  a  place  of  safety  about  fifteen 
leagues  distant." 

A  second  rule  under  the  head  of  unity,  is,  Never  to 
crowd  into  one  sentence^  thi7igs  which  have  so  little  cminexion 
that  they  could  bear  to  be  divided  into  two  or  three  sentences. 

The  violation  of  this  rule  tends  so  much  to  perplex 
and  obscure,  that  it  is  safer  to  err  by  too  many  short 
sentences,  than  by  one  that  is  overloaded  and  embarras- 
sed." Examples  abound  in  authors.  "Archbishop  Til- 
lotson,"  says  an  author,  "died  in  this  year.  He  was 
exceedingly  beloved  by  king  William  and  queen  Mary, 
who  nominated  Dr.  Tennison,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  to 
succeed  him. "  Who  would  expect  the  latter  part  of  this 
sentence  to  follow  in  consequence  of  the  former.^  "He 
was  exceedingly  beloved  by  both  king' and  queen,"  is 
the  proposition  of  the  sentence.  We'look  for  some  proof 
of  this,  or  at  least  something  related  to  it  to  follow;  when 
we  are  on  a  sudden  carried  off  to  a  new  proposition. 


2^S  APPENDIX.  [Unitf 

The  following  sentence  is  still  worse.  The  author^ 
.=ipeaking  of  the  Greeks  under  Alexander,  says:  "Their 
march  was  through  an  uncultivated  country,  whose 
ravage  inhabitants  fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches 
than  a  breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and 
unsavoury,  by  reason  of  their  continual  feeding  upon 
sea-fish."  Here  the  scene  is  changed  upon  us  again 
and  again.  The  march  of  the  Greeks,  the  description 
of  the  inhabitants  through  whose  country  they  travelled, 
'.he  account  of  their  sheep,  and  the  cause  of  their  sheep 
being  ill-tasted  foody  form  a  jumble  of  objects,  slightly 
related  to  each  other,  which  the  reader  cannot,  with- 
out much  difficulty,  comprehend  under  one  view. 

These  examples  have  been  taken  from  sentences  of 
no  great  length,  yet  very  crowded.  Writers  who  deal  in 
long  sentences,  are  very  apt  to  be  faulty  in  this  article^ 
Take,  for  an  instance,  the  following  from  Temple- 
"The  usual  acceptation  takes  profit  and  pleasure  for  two 
difterent  things,  and  not  only  calls  the  followers  or  vo- 
taries of  them  by  the  several  names  of  busy  and  idle 
men;  but  distinguishes  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  that 
are  conversant  about  them,  calling  the  operations  of  the 
first,  Wisdom;  and  of  the  other,  Wit;  which  is  a  Saxon 
word,  used  to  express  what  the  Spaniards  a«d  Italians 
call  Ingenio^  and  the  French  Esprit,  both  from  the  La- 
tin, though  I  think  wit  more  particularly  signifies  that 
of  poetry,  as  may  occur  in  remarks  on  the  Runic  lan- 
guage.'' When  the  reader  arrives  at  the  end  of  this 
perplexed  sentence,  he  is  surprised  to  find  himself  at  so 
great  distance  from  the  object  with  which  he  set  out. 

Long,  involved,  and  intricate  sentences,  are  great 
blemishes  in  composition.  In  writers  of  considerable 
correctness,  we  find  a  period  sometimes  running  out  so 
far,  and  comprehending  so  many  particulars,  as  to  be 
more  properly  a  discourse  than  a  sentence.  An  author^ 
speaking  of  the  progress  of  our  language  after  the  time 
of  Cromwell,  runs  on  in  this  manner:  "To  this  suc- 
ceeded that  licentiousness  which  entered  with  the  resto- 
ration, and,  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals, 
fell  to  corrupt  otir  language;  which  last  was  not  like 
to  be  much  improveii  by  those  who  at  that  time  made 
up  the  court  of  king  Charles  the  Second;  either  such 
as  had  followed  him  in  his  banishment,  ar  who  had 


TJnity.").  PERSPICUITY,   8cc.  2€9 

been  altogether  conversant  in  the  dialect  of  these  times, 
©r  young  men  who  had  been  educated  in  thesaine  coun- 
try: so  that  the  court,  which  used  to  be  the  standard  of 
correctness  and  propriety  of  speech,  was  then,  and  I 
think  has  ever  since  continued,  the  worst  school  in 
England  for  that  accomplishment;  and  so  will  remain., 
till  better  care  be  taken  in  the  education  of  our  nobility, 
that  they  may  set  out  into  the  world  with  some  founda- 
tion of  literature,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  patterns 
of  politeness." 

The  author,  in  place  of  a  sentence,  has  here  given  a  . 
loose  dissertation  upon  several  subjects.  How  many 
different  facts,  reasonings,  and  observations,  are  here 
presented  to  the  mind  at  oncel  and  yet  so  linked  to- 
gether by  the  author,  that  they  all  make  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, which  admits  of  no  greater  division  in  pointing 
than  a  colon,  between  any  of  its  members. 

It  may  be  of  use  here  to  give  a  specimen  of  a  long 
sentence,  broken  down  into  several  periods;  by  which 
we  shall  more  clearly  perceive  the  disadvantages  of  long 
sentences,  ^nd  how  easily  they  may  be  amended.  Here 
follows  the  sentence  in  its  original  form:  "Though  in 
yesterday's  paper  we  showed  hcv/  every  thing  that  is 
great,  new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  the  imagination 
with  pleasure,  we  must  own,  that  it  is  impossible  for  us 
to  assign  the  necessary  cause  of  this  pleasure,  because 
we  know  neither  the  nature  of  an  idea,  nor  the  substance 
of  a  human  soul:  and  therefore,  for  want  of  such  a  light, 
all  that  we  can  do,  in  speculations  of  this  kind,  is,  to  re- 
flect on  those  operations  of  the  soul  that  are  most  agree- 
able; and  to  range,  under  their  proper  heads,  what  is 
pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind,  without  being  able  ^ 
to  trace  out  the  several  necessary  and  efficient  causes, 
from  whence  the  pleasure  or  displeasure  arises." 

The  following  amendment,  besides  breaking  down 
the  period  into  several  sentences,  exhibits  some  other 
useful  alterations:  "In  yesterday's  paper,  we  showed 
that  every  thing  which  is  great,  new,  or  beautiful,  is 
apt  to  affect  the  imagination  with  pleasure.  We  must 
own,  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  assign  the  efficient 
tause  of  this  pleasure,  because  we  know  not  the  nature 
either  of  an  idea,  or  of  the  human  soul.  All  that  ;wc  ' 
cjin  do,  therefore,  iu  speculations  of  this  kind,  is.  tp^ 
Z.2 


3T0'  APPENDIX.  [Strength. 

reflect  on  the  operations  of  the  soul  which  are  most 
agreeable,  and  to  range  under  proper  heads  what  is 
pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind.*' 

A  third  rule  for  preserving  the  unity  of  sentences.^ 
isj  to  keep  clear  of  all  unnecessary  parentheses. 

On  some  occasions,  when  the  sense  is  not  too  long 
suspended  by  them,  and  when  they  are  introduced  in  a 
proper  place,  they  may  add  both  to  the  vivacity  and  to 
the  energy  of  the  sentence.  But  for  the  most  part  their 
effect  is  extremely  bad.  They  are  wheels  within  wheels; 
sentences  in  the  midst  of  sentences:  the  perplexed 
method  of  disposing  of  some  thought,  which  a  writer 
wants  judgment  to  introduce  in  its  proper  place. 

The  parenthesis  in  this  sentence  is  striking  and 
proper^ 

"And  was  the  ransom  paid?  It  was;  and  paid 
"(VVhat  can  exalt  tlie  bounty  more?)  for  thee." 

But  in  the  following  sentence,  we  become  sensible  of 
an  impropriety  in  the  use  of  it.  "If  your  hearts  se- 
cretly reproach  you  for  the  wrong  choice  you  have 
made,  (as  there  is  time  for  repentance  and  retreat^  and 
a  return  to  wisdom  is  always  honourable,)  bethink 
yourselves  that  the  evil  is  not. irreparable."  It  would 
be  much  better  to  express  in  a  separate  sentence,  the 
thoughts  contained  in  this  parenthesis;  thus:  "If  your 
hearts  secretly  reproach  you  for  the  wrong  choice  you 
have  made,  bethink  yourselves  that  the  evil  is  not  ir- 
reparable. Still  there  is  time  for  repentance  and  re- 
treat; and  a  return  to  wisdom  is  always  honourable.'' 
— See  the  Appendix  to  the  Exercises. 

CHAPTER    III. 

^  OF  THE  STRENGTH  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

The  third  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is,  Strength 

By  this  is  meant  such  a  disposition  and  management 

of  the  several  words  and  members,   as  shall  bring  out 

the  sense  to  the  best  advantage,   and  give  every  word 

and  every  member,  its  due  weight  and  force. 

A  sentence  may  be  clear,  it  may  also  be  compact  in 
-all  its  parts,  or  have  the  requisite  unity,  and  yet,  by 
some  circumstance  in  the  structure,  it  may  fail  in  that 
strength  of  impression,  which  a  better  management, 
jrould  have  produced* 


Strength.]  perspicuity,  Sec.  271 

The  Jirst  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sen- 
tence, is,  to  prune  it  of  all  redundant  words  and  members^ 

It  is  a  general  maxim,  that  any  words  which  do  not  • 
add  some  importance  to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence, 
always  injure  it.  Care  should  therefore  be  exercised 
with  respect  to  synonymous  words,  expletives,  circum- 
locutions, tautologies,  and  the  expressions  of  unneces- 
sary circumstances.  The  attention  becomes  remiss, 
when  words  are  multiplied  without  a  correspondent 
multiplication  of  ideas.  ^'Content  with  deserving  a 
triumph,  he  refused  the  honour  of  it;"  is  better  language 
than  to  say,  "Being  content  with  deserving  it,"  &c. 

"In  the  Attic  commonwealth,"  says  an  aut'ior,  *'it 
\\'as  the  privilege  and  birthright  of  every  citizen  and 
poet,  to  rail  aloud  and  in  public."  Better  simply  thus: 
*4n  the  Attic  commonwealth,  it  was  the  privilege  of 
every  citizen  to  rail  in  public." 

Another  expresses  himself  thus:  "They  returned 
back  again  to  the  same  city  from  whence  they  came 
forth;"  instead  of,  "They  returned  to  the  city  whence 
they  came."  The  five  words,  back^  again,  same^from^ 
and  forth^  are  mere  expletives,  that  have  neither  use 
nor  beauty,  and  ptc  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  < 
cumbrances. 

The  word  but  is  often  improperly  used  with  that: 
as,  "There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  he  seriously  means 
what  he  says."  It  is  not  only  useless,  but  cumbersome: 
* 'There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  seriously  means  what 
he  says."  By  transposing  the  parts  of  the  sentence, 
we  shall  immediately  perceive  the  propriety  of  omit- 
ing  this  word:  "That  he  seriously  means  what  he. 
^ays,  there  can  be  no  doubt."  •  wUj^ 

"I  am  honestly,  seriously,  and  unalterably  of  opinion, 
hat  nothing  can  possibly  be  more  incurably  and  em- 
phatically destructive,  or  more  decisively  fatal,  to  a 
kingdom,  than  the  introduction  of  thoughtless  dissi- 
pation, and  the  pomp  of  lazy  luxury."  Would  not  the 
full  import  of  this  noisy  sentence  be  better  expressed 
thus:  "I  am  of  opinion,  that  nothing  is  more  ruinous 
to  a  kingdom,  than  luxury  and  dissipation." 

Some  writers  use  much  circumlocution  in  exprcss- 
ifig  their  ideas.  A  considerable  one,  for  so  very  sim- 
ple a  thing  as  a  man's  wounding  himself,  says,  **To 


2f2  APPENDIX.  [Strength. 

mangle,  or  wound,  his  outward  form  and  constituticm, 
his  natural  limbs  or  body." 

But,  on  some  occasions,  circumlocution  has  a  pe- 
culiar force;  as  in  the  following  sentence:  "Shall  not 
the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right?" 

In  the  sentences  which  follow,  the  ill  effects  of  tau- 
tology appear. 

*'So  it  is,  that  I  must  ht  forced  to  get  home,  partly 
by  stealth,  and  partly  hy  force." 

"Never  did  Atticus  succeed  better  in  gaining  the 
itniversal  love  and  esteem  of  «//  men." 

The  subsequent  sentence  contains  several  unneces- 
sary circumstances.  "On  receiving  this  information, 
he  arose,  went  out,  saddled  his  horse,  mounted  him, 
and  rode  to  town."  All  is  implied  in  saying,  '*On 
receiving  this  information,  he  rode  to  town." 

This  manner,  however,  in  a  certain  degree,  is  so 
strongly  characteristic  of  the  simple  style  of  remote 
ages,  that,  iir  books  of  the  highest  antiquity,  particu- 
larly the  Bible,  it  is  not  at  all  ungraceful.  Of  this  kind 
are  the  following  scriptural  phrases.  "He  lifted  up 
his  voice,  and  w^ept."  "He  opened  his  mouth,  and 
said."  It  is  true,  .that,  in  strictness,  they  are  not  ne- 
»  cssary  to  the  narration,  but  they  are  of  some  impor- 
tance to  the  composition,  as  bearing  the  venerable  sig- 
nature of  ancient  simplicity.  It  may,  on  this  occasion, 
be  further  observed,  that  the  language  of  the  present 
translation  of  the  Bible,  ought  not  to  be  viewed  in  an 
exceptionable  light,  though  some  parts  of  it  may  ap- 
pear to  be  obsolete.  From  universal  admission,  this, 
language  has  become  so  familiar  and  intelligible,  that 
■^\  all  transcripts. and  allusions,  except  where. the  sense 
is  evidently  injured,  it  ought  to  be  carefully  preserved. 
And  it  may  also  be  justly  remarked,  that,  on  religious 
subjects,  a  frequent  recurrence  of  scripture-language 
3S  attended  with  peculiar  force  and  propriety. 

Though  it  promotes  the  strength  of  a  sentence,  to 
contract  a  roundabout  method  of  expression,  and  to 
?op  off  excrescences,  yet  we  should  avoid  the  extreme 
of  pruning  too  closely:  some  leaves  should  be  left  to 
shelter  and  surround  the  fruit.  Even  synonymous  ex- 
pressions may,  on  some  occasions,  be  used  with  prG-», 
priejty.  One  is,  when  an  obscurer  term,  which  we  caii->v 


^(rength.J  perspicuity,  &c.  27S 

not  well  avoid  employing,  needs  to  be  explained  by 
one  that  is  clearer.  The  other  is,  when  the  language 
of  the  emotions  is  exhibited.  Emotion  naturally  dwells 
on  its  object:  and  when  the  reader  also  feels  interest- 
cd,  repetition  and  synonymy  have  frequently  an  agree- 
able effect. 

The  following  passage,  taken  from  Addison,  who 
delighted  in  a  full  and  flowing  style,  may,  by  some  per- 
sons, be  deemed  not  very  exceptionable.  "But  there  is 
nothing  that  makes  its  way  more  directly  to  the  soul 
than  beauty,  which  immediately  diftuses  a  secret  satis- 
faction and  complacency  through  the  imagination,  and 
gives  a  finishing  to  any  thing  that  is  great  or  uncom- 
mon. The  very  first  discovery  of  it  strikes  the  mind 
with  inward  joy,  and  spreads  a  cheerfulness  and  delight 
through  all  its  faculties."  Some  degree  of  verbosity 
may  be  discovered  in  these  sentences,  as  phrases  are 
repeated  which  seem  little  more  than  the  echo  of  one 
another;  such  as — diffusing  satisfaction  and  complacency 
through  the  imagination — striking  the  niind  with  inward 
jof — spreading  cheerfulness  and  delight  through  all  its  fa- 
culties. But,  perhaps,  some  redundancy  is  more  al- 
lowable on  such  lively  subjects,  than  it  would  be  on 
other  occasions. 

After  removing  superfluities,  the  second  v\\\e  for  pro- 
moting the  strength  of  a  sentence,  is,  to  attend  parti- 
cularly  to  the  use  of  copulativesy  relatives,  and  all  the  par- 
ticles employed  for  transition  and  connexion. 

These  little  words,  but^  andy  or,  which,  whose,  where, 
then,  therefore,  because,  8cc.  are  frequently  the  most  im- 
portant words  of  any;  they  are  the  jpints  or  hinges 
upon  which  all  sentences  turn;  and,  of  course,  mucl\^- 
of  their  strength  must  depend  upon  such  particles. 
The  varieties  in  using  them  are,  indeed,  so  many,  that 
no  particular  system  of  rules  respecting  them  can  be 
given.  Some  observations,  tending  to  illustrate  the 
rule,  may,  however,  be  mentioned. 

What  is  called  splitting  particles,  or  separating  a 
preposition  from  the  noun  which  it  governs,  is  to  be 
avoided.  As  if  I  should  say,  "Though  virtue  borrows 
no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied 
by,  the  advantages  of  fortune."  Here  we  are  put  to  a 
stand  in  thought,  being  obliged  to  rest  a  little  on  tht> 


':i!f4'  APPENDIX.  [Strength^'- 

preposition  by  itself,  which,  at  the  same  time,  carries' 
no  sigpiificancy,  till  it  is  joined  to  its  proper  substantive. 

Some  writers  needlessly  multiply  demonstrative  and 
relative  particles,  by  the  frequent  use  of  such  phrase- 
ology as  this:  "There  is  nothing  which  disgusts  us 
sooner  than  the  empty  pomp  of  language."  In  intro- 
ducing a  subject,  or  laying  down  a  proposition,  to 
which  we  demand  particular  attention,  this  sort  of  style 
is  very  proper;  but,  on  common  occasions,  it  is  better' 
to  express  ourselves  more  simply  and  briefly:  ''Noth- 
ing disgusts  us  sooner  than  the  empty  pomp  of  lan- 
guage." ' 

Other  writers  make  a  practice  of  omitting  the  rela- 
tive, where  they  think  the  meanii>g  can  be  understood 
without  it:  as,  "The  man  I  love;"  "The  dominions 
we  possessed,  and  the  conquests  we  made."'  But 
though  this  elliptical  style  is  intelligible,  and  is  allow- 
able in  conversation  and  epistolary  writing,  yet  in  all 
writings  of  a  serious  and. dignified  kind,  it  ought  to  be 
avoided.  There,  the  relative  should  always  he  insert- 
ed in  its  proper  place,  and  the  construction  filled  up. 
"The  man  whom  I  love."  "The  dominions  which 
we  possessed,  and  the  conquests  which  we  made." 

With  regard  to  the  copulative  particle,  and,  which 
occurs  so  frequently  in  all  kinds  of  composition,  several 
observations  are  to  be  made.  First,  it  is  evident,  that 
the  unnecessary  repetition  of  it  enfeebles  style.  The 
following  sentence  from  Sir  William  Temple,  Avill  serve 
for  an  instance.  He  is  speaking  of  the  refinement  of  the 
French  language:  "The  academy,  set  up  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  to  amuse  the  wits  of  that  age  a?id  country, 
wid  divert  them  from  raking  into  his  politics  and  minis- 
^y,  brought  this  into  vogue;  and  the  French  wits  have, 
for  this  last  age,  been  wholly  turned  to  the  refinement 
of  their  style  and  language;  and,  indeed,  with  such 
success,  that  it  can  hardly  be  equalled,  and  runs  equally 
through  their  verse  a?id  their  prose."  Here  are  no 
fewer  than  eight  ands  in  one  sentence.  Some  writers 
often  make  their  sentences  drag  in  this  manner,  by  a 
careless  multiplication  of  copulatives. 

But,  in  the  next  place,  it  is  worthy  of  observation, 
that  though  the  natural  use  of  the  conjunction  and,  is 
to  join  objects  together,  .yet,  in  fact,  by  dropping  the 


Strength.]  PERSTicriTT,^  &c.  2T5 

conjunction,  we  often  mark  a  closer  connexion,  a  quicker 
succession  of  objects,  than  when  it  is  inserted  between 
them.  "I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered,"  expresses  with 
more  force  the  rapidity  and  quick  succession  of  con- 
quest, than  if  connecting  particles  had  been  used. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  we  seek  to  prevent  a  quick 
transition  from  one  object  to  another,  when  we  are 
making  some  enumeration,  in  which  we  wish  that  the 
objects  should  appear  as  distinct  from  each  other  as 
possible,  and  that  the  mind  should  rest,  for  a  moment, 
on  each  object  by  itself,  copulatives  may  be  multiplied 
with  peculiar  advantage.  As  when  an  author  says, 
*'Such  a  man  might  fall  a  victim  to  power;  but  truth, 
and  reason,  and  liberty,  would  fall  with  him. "  Observe, 
in  the  following  enumeration  nriade  by  the  Apostle  Paul, 
what  additional  weight  and  distinctness  are  given  to 
each  particular,  by  the  repetitionof  a  conjunction:  "I 
am  persuaded,  that  neither  death,  nar  life,  nor  angels, 
nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor 
things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any  other 
-creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of 
God." 

The  words  designed  to  mark  the  transition  from  one 
i  sentence  to  another,  and  the  connexion  between  sen- 
tences, are  sometimes  very  incorrect,  and  perform  their 
office  in  an  imperfect  and  obscure  manner.  The  follow- 
ing is  an  example  of  this  kind  of  inaccuracy.  *'By 
greatness,  I  do  not  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object 
only,  but  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view.  Such  are  the 
prospects  of  an  open  champaign  country,  a  vast  un- 
cultivated desert,"  Sec.  The  word  such  signifies  of  that 
nature  or  quality,  which  necessarily  presupposes  some 
adjective  or  word  descriptive  of  a  quality  going  before, 
to  which  it  refers.  But,  in  the  foregoing  sentence, 
there  is  no  such  adjective.  The  author  had  spoken  of 
greatness  in  the  abstract  only;  and,  therefore,  such  has 
no  distinct  antecedent  to  which  we  can  refer  it.  The 
sentence  would  have  been  introduced  with  more  pro 
priety,  by  saying.  To  this  class  belong,  or  under  this  head 
are  ranged,  the  prospects,  &c. 

As  connective  particles  are  the  hinges,   tacks,   and 

pins,    by  which  the  words  in  the  same  clause,   the 

.  clauses  in  the  «,anie  member,  the  members  in  the  same 


576  APPENDIX.  ^Strength. 

sentence,  and  even  the  sentences  in  the  same  discourse, 
are  united  together,  and  their  relations  suggested,  so 
they  should  not  be  either  too  frequently  repeated,  awk- 
wardly exposed  to  view,  or  made  up  of  polysyllables, 
when  shorter  words  would  as  well  convey  the  meaning. 
Notwithstanding  that^  insomuch  thaf^  forasmuch  as^  fur- 
thermore^f  8cc.  are  tedious  words,  which  tend  to  over- 
load and  perplex  a  sentence. 

We  shall  conclude  this  head  with  two  remarks  on 
the  subject  of  inserting  or  omitting  the  conjunctions. 
The  first  is,  that  the  illative  conjunctions,  the  casual, 
and  the  disjunctive,  when  they  suit  the  sense,  can  more 
rarely  be  dispensed  with  than  the  copulative.  The 
second  is,  that  the  omission  of  copulatives  always  suc- 
ceeds best,  when  the  connexion  of  the  thoughts  is  either 
very  close,  or  very  distant.  It  is  mostly  in  the  interme- 
diate cases  that  the  conjunction  is  deemed  necessary. 
When  the  connexion  in  thought  is  very  distant,  the 
copulative  appears  absurd;  and  when  very  close,  su- 
perfluous. 

The  third  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sen- 
tence, is,  to  dispose  of  the  capital  word,  orivords,  so  that 
they  may  make  the  greatest  impression. 

That  there  are,  in  every  sentence,  such  capital  words 
on  which  the  meaning  principally  rests,  every  one 
must  see;  and  that  these  words  should  possess  a  con- 
spicuous and  distinguished  place,  is  equally  plain. 
For  the  most  part,  with  us,  the  important  words  are 
placed  in  the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  So  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages:  **Silver  and  gold  have  I  none;  but 
such  as  I  have,  give  I  unto  thee,"  Sec.  "Your  fathers, 
where  are  they?  and  the  prophets,  do  they  live  for 
ever.^'* 

Sometimes,  however,  v/hen  we  intend  to  give  weight 
to  a  sentence,  it  is  of  advantage  to  suspend  the  mean- 
ing for  a  little,  and  then  bring  it  out  full  at  the  close. 
*'Thus,"  says  an  author,  ^*on  whatever  side  we  con- 
template this  ancient  writer,  what  principally  strikes 
us,  is  hiE  wonderful  invention." 

To  accomplish  this  end,  the  placing  of  capital  words 
in  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  sentence,  the  natural  or- 
der of  our  language  must  sometimes  be  inverted.  Ac- 
^ordin^  to  this  natural -order,  the  nominative  has  the 


first  place,  the  verb  the  second,  and  the  objective,  if 
it  be  an  active  verb  that  is  employed,  has  the  third. 
Circumstances  follow  the  nominative,  the  verb,  or  the 
objective,  as  they  happen  to  belong  to  any  of  them, 
•'Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great,"  is  the  natural  order 
of  the  sentence.  But.  its  sti^ength  is  increased  by  inver- 
sion,  thus:  **Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.*'  *4 
profess,  in  the  sincerity  of  my  lieart,"  &c.  is  the  na- 
tural  order  of  a  circumstance.  Inverted  thus:  "In  the 
sincerity  of  my  heart,  I  profess,"  &c. 

Some  authors  gixiatly  invert  the  natural  order  of  sen- 
tences; others  write  mostly  in  a  natural  style.  Each 
method  has  its  advantages.  The  inverted  possesses 
"Strength,  dignity,  and  variety:  the  other,  more  nature, 
ease,  and  simplicity.  We  shall  give  an  instance  of  eaclj 
method,  taken  from  writers  of  considerable  eminence 
The  first  is  of  the  inverted  order.  The  author  is  speak- 
ing of  the  misery  of  vice.  *'This,  as  to  the  complete 
immoral  state,  is,  what  of  their  own  accord,  men  rea- 
dily i-emark.  Where  there  is  this  absolute  degeneracyj 
this  total  apostacy  from  all  candour,  truth,  or  equity, 
there  are  few  who  do  not  see  and  acknowledge  the  mi- 
sery which  is  consequent.  Seldom  is  the  case  mis- 
construed when  at  worst.  The  misfortune  is,  that  we 
look  not  on  this  depravity,  nor  consider  how  it  stands 
in  less  tTegrees.  As  if,  to  be  absolutely  immoral,  were, 
indeed,  the  greatest  misery;  but  to  be  so  in  a  little  de- 
gree, should  be  no  misery  or  harm  at  all.  Which,  to 
allow,  is  just  as  reasonable  as  to  own,  that  it  is  the 
greatest  ill  of  a  body  to  be  in  the  utmost  manner 
maimed  or  distorted;  but  that  to  lose  the  use  only  of 
ene  limb,  or  to  be  impaired  in  some  single  organ  or 
member,  is  no  ill  worthy  the  least  notice."  Here  is 
no  violence  done  to  the  language,  tho'jgh  there  are 
many  inversions. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  natural  construction: 
*'Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect,  and  the  most  delight- 
ful, of  all  our  senses.  It  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest 
variety  of  ideas,  converses  with  its  objects  at  the  great- 
est distance,  and  continues  the  longest  in  action,  witti- 
out  being  tired,  or  satiated  with  its  proper  enjoyments- 
The  sense  of  feeling  can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion  of 
eiien-sioii,  shape,  and  all  other  iidjcas  that  enter  at  ihc 
A  A 


278  APPENDIX.  [Strength. 

eye,  except  colours;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  very 
much  straitened  and  confined  in  its  operations,*'  &c. 

But  whether  we  use  inversion  or  not,  and  in  what- 
ever part  of  the  sentence  we  dispose  of  the  capital 
words,  it  is  always  a  point  of  consequence,  that  these 
capital  words  should  stand  clear  and  disentangled  from 
any  other  words  that  would  clog  them.  Thus,  when 
there  are  any  circumstances  of  time,  place,  or  other 
limitations,  which  the  principal  object  of  our  sentence 
requires  to  have  connected  with  it,  we  must  take  care 
to  dispose  of  them,  so  as  not  to  cloud  that  principal 
object,  nor  to  bury  it  under  a  load  of  circumstances. 
This  will  be  made  clearer  by  an  example.  '"If,  whilst 
they  profess  only  to  please,  they  secretly  advise,  and  give 
instruction,  they  may  now  perhaps,  as  well  as  formerly, 
be  esteemed,  with  justice,  the  best  and  most  honour- 
able among  authors."  This  is  a  well  constructed  sen- 
tence. It  contains  a  great  many  circumstances  and  ad- 
verbs necessary  to  qualify  the  meaning;  only,  secretly, 
as  well,  perhaps,  now,  toiih  justice,  formerly;  yet  these 
are  placed  so  properly,  as  neither  to  embarrass,  nor 
weaken  the  sentence;  while  that  which  is  the  capital 
object  in  it,  viz.  ''being  justly  esteemed  the  best  and 
most  honourable  among  authors,"  comes  out  in  the 
conclusion  clear  and  detached,  and  possesses  its  pro- 
per place.  See  now,  what  would  have  been  the  effect 
of  a  different  arrangement:  ''If,  whilst  they  profess  to 
please  only,  they  advise  and  give  instruction  secretly, 
•they  may  be  esteemed  the  best  and  most  honouraWe 
among  authors,  with  justice,  perhaps,  now  as  well  us  / 
formerly."  Here  we  have  precisely  the  same  words, 
and  the  same  sense;  but  by  means  of  the  circumstan- 
ces being  so  intermingled  as  to  clog  the  capital  words, 
the  whole  becomes  feeble  and  perplexed. 

The  fourth  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  sen- 
tences, is,  that  a  loeaker  assertion  or  proposition  should 
^ever  come  after  a  stronger  one;  and  that,  when  our  sen- 
tence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should^  generality,' 
be  the  concluding  one. 

Thus,  to  say,  "When  our  passions  have  forsaken  us, 
we  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  for- 
saken them,"  is  both  more  easy  and  more  clear,  than 
to  begin  with  the  longer  part  of  the  proposition:  ''We 


SH-eug^th-l  PERSPicuiTT,   Sec.  ^79- 

flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken 
our  passions,  when  they  have  forsaken  us," 

In  general,  it  is  agreeable  to  find  a  sentence  rising 
upon  us>  and  growing  in  its  irrtj^rtance,  to  the  very  lasi 
word,  when  this  construction  can  be  managed  without 
affectation.  "If  we  rise  yet  higher,"  says  Addison,  "and 
consider  the  fixed  stars  as  so  many  oceans  of  flame,  that 
are  each  of  them  attended  with  a  different  set  of  planetsj 
and  still  discover  new  firmaments  and  new  lights,  that 
are  sunk  further  in  those  unfathomable  depths  of  ether; 
we  are  lost  in  such  a  labyrinth  of  suns  and  worlds,  and 
confounded  with  the  magnificence  and  immensity  of 
nature." 

The  fifth  v\x\q  for  the  strength  of  sentences  is,  to  avoid- 
concluding  them  with  an  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  any  incon- 
siderable word. 

Agreeably  to  this  rule,  wx  should  not  conclude  with 
any  of  the  particles,  of,  to,  from,  with,  by.  For  instance, 
it  is  a  great  deal  better  to  say,  *'Avarice  is  a  crime  of 
which  wise  men  are  often  guilty,"  than  to  say,  "Avarice 
is  a  crime  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty  of."  This  is 
a  phraseology  which  all  correct  writers  shun;  and  with 
reason.  For  as  the  mind  cannot  help  resting  a  little,  on 
the  import  of*  the  word  which  closes  the  sentence,  it 
must  be  clibctgrceable  to  be  left  pausing  on  a  word, 
which  does  not,  by  itself,  produce  any  idea. 

For  the  same  reason,  verbs  which  are  used  in  a  com- 
pound sense,  with  some  of  these  prepositions,  are,  though 
not  so  bad,  yet  still  not  proper  conclusions  of  a  period: 
such  as,  bring  about ^  lay  hold  of,  come  over  to,  clear  up, 
and  many  other  of  this  kin<l;  instead  of  which,  if  we  can 
employ  a  simple  verb,  it  always  terminates  the  sentence 
with  more  strength.  Even  the  pronoun  it,  should,  if 
possible,  be  avoided  in  the  conclusion:  especially  when 
it  is  joined  with  some  of  the  prepositions;  as,  with  it,  in  it, 
to  it.  We  shall  be  sensible  of  this  in  the  following  sen- 
tence. * 'There  is  not,  in  my  opinion,  a  more  pleasing 
and  triumphant  consideration  in  religion  than  this,  of  the 
perpetual  progress  which  the  soul  makes  towards  the  per- 
fection of  its  nature,  without  ever  arriving  at  a  period 
in  it.^^  How  much  more  agreeable  the  sentence,  if  it 
had  been  so  constructed  as  to  close  with  the  word  period! 

Besides  particles  and  pronouns,   any  phrase,  which 


280  AWENUrX.  [S^^^S^^* 

expresses  a  circurrtstance  only,  always  appears  badly  ii> 
the  rear  of  a  sentence.  We  may  judge  of  this  by  the  fol- 
lowing passage:  "Let  i\ie  therefore  conclude  by  repeat- 
ing, that  division  has  cai*sed  all  the  mischief  we  lament^ 
that  union  alone  can  retrieve  it;  and  that  a  great  advance 
towards  this  union,  was  the  coalition  of  parties,  so  hap- 
pily begun,  so  successfully  carried  on,  and  of  late  so  un- 
accountably neglected;  to  say  no  worse."  This  last' 
phrase,  "to  say  no  worse,"  occasions  a  falling  ofif  at  the* 
cud.  The  proper  disposition  of  such  circumstances  iii 
a  sentence,  requires  attention,  in  order  to  adjust  them, 
so  as  shall  consist  equally  with  the  perspicuity  and  the 
strength  of  the  period. — Though  necessary  parts,  they:\ 
are,  however,  like  irregular  stones  in  a  building,  which 
fry  the  skill  of  an  artist^  where  to  place  them  with  the 
least  offence.  But  it  must  be  remembered,  that  the 
close  is  always  an  unsuitable  place  for  them.  Notwith- 
standing what  has  been  said  against  concluding  a  period 
with  an  adverb.  Sec.  this  must  not  be  understood  to  re- 
fer to  such  words,  when  the  stress  and,  significancy  of 
the  sentence  rest  chiefly  upon  them^  In  this  case  they 
are  not  to  be  considered  as  circumstances,  but  as  the 
principal  objects:  as  in  the  following  sentence.  "'In 
their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  fiear  of  me,  i»  ^ 
their  adversity,  always."  Here,  ''•never'"  and  ^'alwai/a^^ 
being  emphatical  words, .  were  to  be  so  placed  as  to 
make  a  strong  impression. 

The  sixth  rule  relating  to  the  strength  of  a  sentence^. 
is,  that,  in  the  members  of  a  sentence^  where  two  things  ar& 
compared  or  contrasted  with  one  another;  where  either  a 
resemblance  ar  an  opposition  is  intended  to  be  expressed? 
some  resemblance,  in  the  language  and  construction,  should 
be  preserved.  For  when  the  things  themselves  ^correspond 
to  each  other y.  we  naturally  expect  to  find  a  similar  corres^ 
pondence  in  the  words. 

Thus,  when  it  is  said,  "The  wise  man  is  happy  when  -* 
he  gains  his  own  approbation;  the  fool,  when  he  re- 
commends himself  to  the  applause  of  those  about  him;** 
the  opposition  would  have  been  more  regular,  if  it  had 
been  expressed  thus:  *'The  wise  man  is  happy  when  he 
gains  his  own  approbation;  the  fool,  when  he  gains  that 
of  others." 

"A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's  virtues:  an  enemy  in.- 


Strenglh.]  perspioijity,  &c,  281 

flames  his  cnmes."     Better  thus:  **A  friend  exag:ge- 
rates  a  man's  virtues^  an  enemy,  his  crimes." 

The  following  passage  from  Pope's  Preface  to  his 
Homer,  fully  exemplifies  the  rule  just  given:  "'Homer 
was  the  greater  geniusj  Virgil,  the  better  artist:  in  the 
one,  we  most  admire  the  man 5  in  the  other,  the  work. 
Homer  hurries  us  with  a  commanding  impetuosity; 
\  irgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer  scat- 
ters with  a  generous  profusion^  Virgil  bestows  with  a 
careful  magnificence.  Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out 
his  riches  with  a  sudden  overflow;  Virgil,  like  a  river 
in  its  banks,  with  a  constant  stream." — Periods  thus 
constructed,  when  introduced  with  propriety,  and  not 
returning  too  often,  have  a  sensible  beauty.  But  we 
must  beware  of'  carrying  our  attention  to  this  beauty 
too  far.  It  ought  only  to  be  occasionally  studied,  when 
comparison  or  opposition  of  objects  naturaUy  leads  to  it. 
If  such  a  construction  as  this  be  aimed  at,  in  all  out 
sentences,  it  leads  to  a  disagreeable  uniformity;  pro- 
duces a  regularly  returning  clink  in  the  period,  which 
tires  the  ear;. and  plainly  discovers  affectation. 

The  seventh  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  and  effect 
of  sentences,  is,  to  attend  to  the,  sound,  the  harmony  and 
easy  Jlow.,  of  the  words  and  members. 

Sound  is  a  quality  much  inferior  to  sense;  yet  such 
as  must  not  be  disregarded.  For,  as  long  as  sounds  are 
the  vehicle  or  conveyance  for  our  ideas,  there  will  be  a 
very  considerable  connexion  between  the  idea  which  is 
ronveyed,  and  the  nature  of  the  sound  which  conveys  it. 
— Pleasing  ideas,  and  forcible  reasoning,  can  hardly  be 
transmitted  to  the  mind,  by  means  of  harsh  an^  disa- 
greeable sounds.  The  mind  revolts  at  such  sounds,  and 
the  impression  of  the  sentiment  must  consequently  be 
weakened.  The  observations  which  we  have  to  make 
on  this  subject,  respect  the  choice  of  words;  their  ar- 
rangement; the  order  and  disposition  of  the  members: 
and  the  cadence  or  close  of  sentences. 

We  begin  with  the  choice  of  words.  It  is  evident, 
that  words  are  most  agreeable  to  the  ear,  when  they  art 
composed  of  smooth  and  liquid  sounds,  in  which  there 
is  a  proper  intermixture  of  vowels  and  consonants;  with- 
out too  many  harsh  consonants  rubbing  against  each? 
Aa2 


2^  APPEROiX.  [Stfeflgl|H- 

other;  or  too  many  open  vowels  in  succession,  to  cause 
a  hiatus,  or  disagreeable  aperture  of  the  mouth. 

It  may  always  be  assumed  as  a  principle,  that  what- 
ever sounds  are  difficult  in  pronunciation,  are,  in  the 
same  proportion,  harsh  and  painful  to  the  ear.  Vowels 
give  softness;  consonants,  strength  to  the  sound  of  words. 
The  melody  of  language  requires  a  just  proportion  of 
each;  and  the  construction  will  be  hurt,  will  be  rendered 
either  grating  or  effeminate,  by  an  excess  of  either. 
Long  words  are  commonly  more  agreeable  to  the  ear 
than  monosyllables.  They  please  it  by  the  composition 
or  succession  of  sounds  which  they  present  to  it;  and 
accordingly,  the  most  harmonious  languages  abound 
most  in  them.  Among  words  of  any  length,  those  are 
the  most  melodious,  which  do  not  run  wholly  either  upon 
long  or  short  syllables,  but  are  composed  of  an  inter- 
mixture of  them:  such  diS,  repent^  profess,  powerful,  ve- 
locity, celerity,  independent,  impetuosity. 

If  we  would  speak  forcibly  and  effectually,  we  must 
avoid  the  use  of  such  words  as  the  following;  1.  Such  as 
are  composed  of  words  already  compounded,  the  several 
parts  of  which  are  not  easily,  and  therefore  not  closely 
united:  as,  ^'•Unsuccessfulness,  wrongheadedness,  tender- 
heartednessr^  2.  Such  as  have  the  syllables  which  imme- 
diately follow  the  accented  syllable,  crowded  with  con- 
sonants that  do  not  easily  coalesce:  as,  ^'Questionless, 
chroniclers,  conventiclers:'''  3.  Such  as  have  too  many  syl- 
tfibles  following  the  accented  syllable:  as,  '^ Primarily, 
cursorily,  summarily,  peremptoriness:*'  4.  Such  as  have 
a  short  or  unaccented  syllable  repeated,  or  foliov/ed  by 
another  short  or  unaccented  syllable  very  much  resem- 
bling: as,  ^'Iiolily,  sillily,  lowlily,  farriery.**  A  little 
harshness,  by  the  collision  of  consonants,  which  never- 
theless our  organs  find  no  difficulty  in  articulating,  and 
wfilch  do  not  suggest  to  the  hearer  the  disagreeable 
iyea  either  of  precipitation  or  of  stammering,  is  by  ri^ 
ipeans  a  sufficient  reason  fop  suppressing  a  useful  term." 
The  words  hedg'd,  fiedg'd,  wedg'd,  drudg'd,  grudged,  ad- 
pidg'd,  which  some  have  thought  very  offensive,  arti . 
not  exposed  to  the  objections  which  lie  against  the 
words  above-mentioned.  We  should  not  do  well  to  in- 
•fdduce  such  hard  and  strong  sounds  too  frequently j. 
b\it  when  they  are  used  sparingly  aud  properly,  the/ 


■have  even  a  good  effect.  They  contribute  to  that  va- 
riety in  sound  which  is  advantageous  to  language. 

The  next  head,  respecting  the  harmony  which  results 
froni  a  proper  arrangement  of  words,  is  a  point  of  greater 
nicety.  For,  let  the  words  themselves  be  ever  so  well 
chosen,  and  well  sounding,  yet,  if  they  be  ill  disposed, 
the  melody  of  the  sentence  is  utterly  lost,  or  greatly  im- 
paired. That  this  is  the  case,  the  learners  will  perceive 
by  the  following  examples.  "Pleasures  simple  and  mo- 
derate always  are  the  best:*'  it  would  be  better  to  say, 
**Simple  and  moderate  pleasures  are  always  the  best." 
••Office  or  rank  maybe  the  recompense  of  intrigue, 
versatility,  or  flattery;"  better  thus,  "Rank  or  office 
may  be  the  reco.o^pftfsae  ol  flattery,  versatility,  or  in- 
trigue." "A  great  recommendation  of  the  guidance 
ofl'cred  by  integrity  to  us,  is,  that  it  is  by  all  men  easily 
understood:"  better  in  this  form;  *'It  is  a  great  recom- 
mendation of  the  guidance  oflered  to  us  by  integrity,  that 
it  is  easily  understood  by  all  men."  In  the  following 
examples,  the  words  are  neither  selected  nor  arranged, 
so  as  to  produce  the  most  agreeable  effect.  "If  we 
make  the  best  of  our  life,  it. is  but  as  a  pilgrimage,  with 
dangers  surrounding  it:"  better  thus,  "Our  life,  at  the 
best,  is  a  pilgrimage,  and  dangers  surround  it."  "We 
see  that  we  are  encumbered  with  difficulties,  which  wc 
cannot  prevent:"  better,  "We  perceive  ourselves  involv- 
ed in  difficulties  that  cannot  be  avoided."  "It  is  plain 
to  any  one  who  views  the  subject,  even  slightly,  that 
there  is  nothing  here  that  is  without  allay  and  purei" 
improved  by  this  form;  "It  is  evident  to  the  slightest 
inspection,  that  nothing  here  is  unallayed  and  pure." 

Wc  may  take,  for  an  instance  of  a  sentence  remarkably 
harmonious,  the  following  from  Milton's  Treatise  on 
Education:  "We  shall  conduct  you  to  a  hill-side,  la- 
borious indeed,  at  the  first  ascent;  but  else  so  smooth^ 
so  green,  so  full  of  goodly  prospects,  and  melodious 
sounds  on  every  side,  that  the  harp  of  Orpheus  was  not 
more  charming."  Every  thing  in  this  sentence  con- 
spires to  promote  the  harmony.  The  words  are  well 
chosen;  full  of  liquids,  and  soft  sounds;  laborious,  smooth, 
g.reen,  goodly^  milodious,  charmingi  and  these  words  so 
^ifuUy  arraiige4,  that  were  w«  to  aiter  tfee  situatioiiol' 


284  APfBKDix.  [Strength- 

any  one  of  them,  we  should,  presently,  be  sensible  of  the 
melody's  suffering. 

To  promote  this  harmonious  arrangement  of  words, 
the  following  general  direcdons  will  be  found  of  some  use. 
1st,  When  the  preceding  word  ends  with  a  vowel,  let 
the  subsequent  one  begin  with  a  consonant;  and  vice 
versa.  A  true  friend,  a  cruel  enemy ^  are  smoother  and 
easier  to  the  voice,  than  a  true  union,  a  cruel  destroyer. 
But  when  it  is  more  perspicuou  s  or  convenient,  for  vowels 
©r  consonants  to  end  one  word  and  begin  the  next,  it  is 
proper  that  the  vowels  be  a  long  and  short  one;  and  that 
the  consonants  be  either  a  liquid  and  a  mute,  or  liquids  of 
different  sorts:  thus,  a  lovely  offspring;  a  purer  design; 
a  calm  retreat;  are  more  fluent  than,  a  happy  union,  a 
hrief  petition,  a  cheap  triumph,  a  putrid  distemper,  a  calm 
matron,  a  clean  nurse.  From  these  examples,  the  student 
will  perceive  the  importanceof  accurately  understanding 
the  nature  of  vowels  and  consonants,  liquids  and  mutes; 
with  the  connexion  and  influence  which  subsist  amongst 
them.  2d,  In  general,  a  considerable  number  of  long  o 
short  words  near  one  another  should  be  avoided.  *'Dis 
appointment  in  our  expectations  is  wretchedness:"  bet- 
ter thus;  "Disappointed  hope  is  misery."  "No  course 
of  joy  can  please  us  long:"  better,  "No  course  of  enjoy- 
ment can  delight  us  long. "  A  succession  of  words  hav- 
ing the  same  quantity  in  the  accented  syllables,  whether 
it  be  long  or  short,  should  also  be  avoided.  "James  was 
needy,  feeble,  and  fearful:"  improved  thus,  "James  was 
Hmid,  feeble,  and  destitute. "  "They  could  not  be  happy; 
for  he  was  silly,  pettish,  and  sullen:"  better  thus;  "They 
eould  not  be  happy;  for  he  was  simple,  peevish,  and 
gloomy."  3d,  Words  which  begin  alike,  or  end  alike, 
must  not  come  together;  and  the  last  syllable  of  the  pre- 
ceding word,  should  not  be  the  same  as  the  first  syllable 
of  the  subsequent  one.  It  is  not  so  pleasing  and  harmo- 
nions  to  say,  "This  is  a  convenient  contrivance;"  "Htt 
is  an  indulgent  parent;"  "She  behaves  with  uniform  for* 
mality;"  as,  "This  is  a  useful  contrivance;"  "He  is  a  kind 
liarent:"  "She  behaves  with  unvaried  formality." 

We  proceed  to  consider  the  members  of  a  sentence? 
-with  regard  to  harmony.  They  should  not  be  too  long, 
Skor  disproportionate  to  each  other.  When  they  have  a 
re^ul^  and  proportional  division,  they  ar€  luuch  easier 


Sircjig^f).]  PERSWWiw,  SkC'  255" 

to  the  voice,  are  more  clearly  understood,  and  better 
remembered,  than  when  this  rule  is  not  attended  to:  for 
•whatever  tires  the  voice,  and  offends  the  ear,  is  apt  to 
mar  the  strength  of  the  expression,  and  to  degrade  th^ 
sense  of  the  author.  And  this  is  a  sufficient  ground  for 
paying  attention  to  the  order  and  proportion  of  senten- 
ces, and  the  different  parts  of  which  they  consist.  The 
following  passage  exhibits  sentences  in  which  the  dif- 
ferent members  are  proportionally  arranged. 
I  Temple,  speaking  sarcastically  of  man,  says;  *.'But  his 
pride  is  greater  than  his  ignorance,  and  what  he  wants 
in, knowledge  he  supplies  by  sufficiency.  When  he  has 
looked  about  him  as  far  as  he  can,  he  concludes  there  is 
no  more  to  be  seen;  when  he  is  at  the  end  of  his  line^ 
he  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean;  when  he  has  shot  his 
best,  he  is  sure  none  ever  did,  or  ever  can,  shoot  better, 
<^r  beyond  it.  His  own  reason  he  holds  to  be  the  certaitt 
measure  of  truth;  and  his  own  knowledge,  of  what  is 
possible  in  nature."  Here  every  thing  is  at  once  easy 
to  the  breath,  grateful  to  the  ear,  and  intelligible  to  the 
understanding.  See  another  example  of  the  same  kind^ 
in,  the  17th  and  18th  verses  of  the  3d  chapter  of  the  pro- 
phet Habakkuk,  We  may  remark  here,  that  our  present 
version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  especially  of  the  Psalms, 
abounds  with  instances  of  an  harmonious  arrangement 
of  the  words  and  members  of  sentences. 

In  the  following  quotation  from  Tillotson,  we  shall 
become  sensible  of  an  effect  very  different  fix)m  that  of  the 
preceding  sentences.  "This  discourse,  concerning  the 
easiness  '^^f  the  Divine  commands,  does  all  along  suppose 
and  acknowledge  the  difficulties  of  the  first  entrance  upon 
a  religious  course;  except  only  in  those  persons  who 
have  had  the  happiness  to  be  trained  up  to  religion,  by 
the  easy  and  insensible  degrees  of  a  pious  and  virtuous 
education.*'  Here  there  is  some  degree  of  harshness  and 
unpleasantness,  owing  principally  to  this,  that  there  is 
properly  no  more  than  one  pause  or  rest  in  the  sentence,, 
tailing  betwixt  the  two  members  into  which  it  is  divi- 
ded: each  of  which  is  so  long  as  to  occasion  a  con- 
siderable stretch  of  the  breath  in  pronouncing  it. 

With  respect  to  the  cadence  or  close  of  a  sentence, 
care  should  be  taken,  that  it  be  not  abrupt,  or  unplea- 
sant.   The  following  instance  may  be  sufficient  to  show 


2*fi  APPENDIX.  [Figures, 

the  propriety  of  some  attention  to  this  part  of  the  rule. 
"V^irtue,  diligence,  and  industry,  joined  with  good  tem- 
per'Und  prudence,  are  prosperous  in  general."  It  would 
be  better  thus:  '^Virtue,  diligence,  and  industry,  joined 
with  good  temper  and  prudence,  have  ever  been  found 
the  surest  road  to  prosperity.  "  An  author  speaking 
of  the  Trinity,  expresses  himself  thus;  "  It  is  a  mystery 
which  we  firmly  believe  the  truth  of,  and  humbly  adore 
the  depth  of. "  How  much  better  would  it  have  been' 
with  thi^s  transposition:  "It  is  a  mystery,  the  truth  of 
which  we  firmly  believe,  and  the  depth  of  which  wq 
humbly  adore." 

In  order  to  give  a  sentence  this  proper  close,  the 
longest  member  of  it,  and  the  fullest  words,  should  be 
reserved  to  the  conclusion.  But  in  the  distribution  of 
the  members,  and  in  the  cadence  of  the  period,  as  well 
as  in  the  sentences  themselves,  variety  must  be  observ- 
ed: for  the  mind  soon  tires  with  a  frequent  repetition  of 
the  same  tone. 

Though  attention  to  the  words  and  members,  and  the 
close  of  sentences,  must  not  be  neglected,  yet  it  must 
also  be  kept  within  proper  bounds.  Sense  has  its  own 
harmonyj  and  in  no  instance  should  perspicuity,  pre- 
cision, or  strength  of  sentiment,  be  sacrificed  to  sound. 
All  unmeaning  words,  introduced  merely  to  round  the 
period,  or  fill  up  the  melody,  are  great  blemishes  in 
writing.  They  are  childish  and  trivial  ornaments,  by 
which  a  sentence  always  loses  more  in  point  of  weight, 
than  it  can  gain  by  such  additions  to  its  sound.  See 
the  Octavo  Grammar,  on  this  chapter. 

See  also  the  appendix  to  the  Exercises. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

The  FOURTH  requisite  of  a  pei^fect  sentence,  is  a  ju- 
dicious use  of  the  Figures  of  Speech. 

As  figurative  language  is  to  be  met  with  in  almost 
every  sentence;  and,  when  properly  employed,  confers 
beauty  and  strength  on  composition;  some  knowledge  of 
it  appears  to  be  indispensable  to  the  scholars,  who  are 
learning  to  form  their  sentences  with  perspicuity,  accu- 
racy, and  force.  We  shall,  therefore,  enumerate  the 
principal  figures,  and  give  them  some  explanation. 

la  general,  Figures  of  Speech  imply  some  departure 


Figures.]  perspicuity,  &c  3t7 

from  simplicity  of  expression;  the  idea  which  we  mean 
to  convey  is  expressed  in  a  particular  manner,  and  with 
some  circumstance  added,  which  is  designed  to  render 
the  impression  more  strong  and  vivid.  When  I  say,  for 
instance,  *'That  a  good  man  enjoys  comfort  in  the  midst 
Qf  adversity;"  I  just  express  my  thoughts  in  the  sim- 
plest manner  possible:  but  when  I  say,  *'To  the  upright 
there  ariseth  light  in  darkness;"  the  same  sentiment  is 
expressed  in  a  figurative  style;  a  new  circumstance  is 
introduce4;  ''light,"  is  put  in  the  place  of  "comfort," 
and  ''darkness"  is  used  to  suggest  the  idea  of  adversity. 
In  the  same  manner,  to  say,  "It  is  impossible,  by  any 
search  we  can  make,  to  explore  the  Divine  Nature  fully," 
is  to  make  a  simple  proposition:  but  when  we  say,  "Canst 
thou,  by  searching,  find  out  the  Lord?  Canst  thou  find 
out  the  Almighty  to  perfection?  It  is  high  as  heaven, 
what  canst  thou  do?  deeper  than  hell,  what  canst  thou 
know?"  this  introduces  a  figure  into  style;  the  proposi- 
tion being  not  only  expressed,  but  with  it  admiration 
and  astonishment. 

But,  though  figures  imply  a  deviation  from  what  may 
be  reckoned  the  most  simple  form  of  speech,  we  are  not 
thence  to  conclude,  that  they  imply  any  thing  uncommon, 
or  unnatural.  On  many  occasions,  they  are  both  the  most 
natural,  and  the  most  common  method  of  uttering  our 
sentiments.  It  would  be  very  difficult  to  compose  any  dis- 
course without  using  them  often;  nay,  there  are  few  sen- 
tences of  considerable  length,  fn  which  there  does  not 
occur  some  expression  that  may  be  termed  afigure.  This 
being  the  case,  we  may  see  the  necessity  of  some  atten- 
tion, in  order  to  understand  their  nature  and  use. 

At  the  first  rise  of  language,  men  would  begin  with 
giving  names  to  the  different  objects  which  they  discern- 
ed, or  thought  of.  The  stock  of  words  would,  then,  be 
very  small.  As  men's  ideas  multiplied,  and  their  ac- 
quaintance with  objects  increased,  their  store  of  names 
and  words  would  also  increase.  But  to  the  vast  variety 
of  objects  and  ideas,  no  language  is  adequate.  No  lan- 
guage is  so  copious,  as  to  have  a  separate  word  for  every 
separate  idea.  Men  naturally  sought  to  abridge  this  la- 
Ibour  of  multiplying  words  without  end;  and,  in  order  to 
lay  less  burden  on  their  memories,  made  o^ne  word,  which 
they  bad  already  appropriated  to  a  certain  idea  or  object^ 


S^8  Ai*FENDix.  [Figures. 

stand  also  for  some  other  idea  or  object,  between  which 
and  the  primary  one,  they  found,  or  fancied,  some  relation. 
The  names  of  sensible  objects,  were  the  words  most  early 
introduced;  and  were,  by  degrees,  extended  to  those 
mental  objects,  of  which  men  had  more  obscure  concep- 
tions, and  to  which  they  found  it  more  difficult  to  assign 
distinct  names.  They  borrowed,  therefore,  the  name  of 
some  sensible  idea,  where  their  imagination  found  some 
affinity.  Thus,  we  speak  of  a  piercing  judgment,  and  a 
clear  head:  a  soft  or  a  hard  heart;  a  rough  or  a  smooth 
behaviour.  We  say,  inflamed  by  anger,  warmed  by  lo\'e, 
swelled  with  pride,  melted  into  grief;  and  these  are  almost 
the  only  significant  words  whi<:h  we  have  for  such  ideas. 

The  principal  advantages  of  figures  of  speech,  are 
the  two  following. 

First,  They  enrich  language,  and  render  it  more  co- 
pious. By  their  means  words  and  phrases  are  multiplied, 
for  expressing  all  sorts  of  ideas;  tor  describing  even  the 
minutest  differences;  the  nicest  shades  and  colours  of 
thought;  which  no  language  could  possibly  do  by  pro- 
per words  alone,  without  assistance  from  Tropes. 

Secondly^  They  frequently  give  us  a  much  clearer  and 
more  striking  view  of  the  principal  object,  than  we  could 
have,  if  it  were  expressed  in  simple  terms,  and  divested 
of  its  accessory  idea.  By  a  well  chosen  figure,  even 
conviction  is  assisted,  and  the  impression  of  a  truth  upon 
the  mind,  made  more  lively  and  forcible  than  it  would 
otherwise  be.  We  perceive  this  in  the  following  illus^ 
tration  of  Young:  *'When  we  dip  too  deep  in  pleasure, 
we  always  stir  a  sediment  that  renders  it  impure  and 
noxious:"  and  in  this  instance:  ''A  heart  boiling  with 
violent  passions,  will  always  send  up  infatuating  fumes 
to  the  head."  An  image  that  presents  so  much  con- 
gruity  between  a  moral  and  a  sensible  idea,  serves,  lik" 
an  argument  from  analogy,  to  enforce  what  the  authi 
asserts,  and  to  induce  belief. 

Having  considered  the  general  nature  of  figures,   m 
proceed  next  to  particularize  such  of  them  as  are  of  li. 
most  importance;' viz.   Metaphor,  Allegory,  Compa:- 
sonj  Metonymy^  Synecdoche,  Personification,  A  post}  o 
phe,  Antithesis,  Interrogation,  Exclamation,  Ampliii- 
nation  or  Climax,  &c. 

A  Metaphor  is  a  figi^ire  fouTided  entirely  on  the  re.s^hi- 


'iFigures.']  perspicuity,   See.  289 

blance  which  one  object  bears  to  another.  Hence,  it  is 
much  allied  to  simile  or  compunson,  and  is  indeed  no 
other  than  a  comparison,  expressed  m  an  ahridijed  forn>. 
When  I  say  of  some  great  minister,  *'that  he  uphold :> 
the  state,  like  a  pillar  which  supports  the  weight  of  u 
whole  edifice,"  I  fairly  make  a  cojuparison:  but  when 
I  say  of  such  a  minister,   "•That  he  is  the  pilUr  of  the 

'state,''  it  now  becomes  a  nK'taplu.-r^  In  the  latter  ca.'c, 
the  coniparisoji  between  the  minisTL-r  i.nd  a  j-Uiar  is 
made  in  the  mind;  but  it  is  expr'jyi.ed  without  uriv  <  f 
Xhe  words  that  denote  comparison. 

The  ibllowinj^  ai-e  exampltrs  of  metapbof  taken  from 
■Scripture:  *'I  will  be  unto  her  a  wail  of  fire  roun;l 
about,   and   will  be  the  glory  iu    the   midst    of   her.  ' 

'■"Thou  art  rny  rock  and  my  fortress."    ''Thy  word  is  a 

•^amp  to  my  feet,  and  a  lig-ht  to  my  path." 

'Rules  to  l)e  observed  in  the  uSe  oT  nletaphors. 
''I.  McicTjf/toh^  (14  well  as  of  her  'fii^urc?^  slioiiJd  on  no  or.' 
casion,  be  .stuck  On  prc^nstly.;  and  stvovld  always  be  such  ii.'=> 
accord  vnth  the  strain  of  our  sentimcut.   The  latter  part  cf 

*the  following  passage,  from -a  late  historian,  is,  in  this 
respect,  very  exceptionable.  He  is  givint^  an  ?xcount<^f 
the  famous  act  of  parliament  against  irregular  mar- 
riages in  England,  '^'i'he  bill,'*  says  he,  "underwent 
a  great  number  of  alterations  and  amendments,  which 
were  not  ?i^ectcd  without  violent  contest.  At  lengch, 
howevet','it  was  floated  through^ijoth  houses  on  the  ti(Ui 
of  a  ^*eat  majorit^v,  and  steered  into  the  safe  haibour 
of  royal  approbation." 

"2.  Care  should  lie  takei\  that  the  resemblance^  which  in 
the  fonr-ddt'jm  cf  the  metaphor  ^  hi'  dear  and  persj  i:uouby 
not  fitr-fi'tched,  nor  d[fficv.l'  to  ddscover.  The  transgression 
of  this  rule  makes  what  are  called  harsh  or  forced  meta- 
phors; whi-ch  arc  displeasing,  because  they  })uzzle  th«; 
reader,  and  instead  of  illustrating  liie  thoilglit,  rei;der 
it  pei'plexed  and  intricate. 

;;.  In  the  third  place,  we  shouM  be  careful,  in  the 
C('nduct'<}f  ineta^:)hr>rs,  never  to  Jnrnhir  inetaphorical  and 
phdn  ian'gK/i^t'tr>-rcther*  An  aiitiioi,  addressing  himself 
•to  the  kilig^  says: 

To  thee  the  world  its  i)rr^^erit  h  riaL'e'pnysr, 
The  harced  earl\.  but  n»viUiie  die  uraiSt, 

'     B  b 


ii90  APPENT>1S.  [FigUtCS. 

It  19  plain,  that,  had  not  the  rhytne  misled  him  to  the 
rhoice  of  an  improper  phrase,  he  would  have  said, 

The  Afflrw?«<earl\',  bot  mature  tlie  crop; 
utid  so  vould  have  continued  the  figure  which  he  had 
begun.   Whereas,  by  dropping  it  unfinished,  and  by  em- 
ploying  the  literal  word  *'praisc,"  when  we  were  expect-  ^ 
jng  something  that  related  to  the  harvest,  the  figure  is  * 
broken,  and  the  two  members  of  the  sentence  have  no 
s^litabie  correspondence  to  each  other. 

4s  We  should  avoid  making  two  inconsistent  meta- 
phors meet  on  one  object.  This  is  what  is  called  mixed 
metaphor,  and  is  indeed  one  of  the  greatest  misapplica- 
frons  of  this  figure.  One  may  be  *W/€7/e/'6rf  under  the 
patronage  of  a  great  man:"  but  it  would  be  wmng  to 
say,  '"''shelUred  under  the  mask  of  dissimulation:"  as  a 
Tnask  conceals,  but  does  not  shelter.  A-ddison  in  his 
letter  from  Italy,  says: 

I  bridle  in  my  stniggliog  muse  vi'itbpaia, 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  straio. 

The  muse,  figured  as  a  horse,  may  be  bridled^j  but  when 
we  speak  of  launching,  we  make  it  a  ship;  and  by  no 
force  of  imagination,  can  it  be  supposed  both  ahorse 
and  a  ship  at  one  moment^  bridged,  to  hinder  it  from 
launching. 

The  same  author,  elsewhere,  says,  *'There  is  not  a 
single  view  of  human  nature,  which  is  not  sufiicient  to 
cxtirtguish  the  seeds  of  pride. "  Observe  the  incoherence 
of  the  things  here  joined  together^  making  a  view  extiji- 
guish,  and  extinguish  seeds. 

As  metaphors  ought  never  to  be  mixed,  so  they  shouM 
not  be  crowded  together  on  the  same  object;  for  the  mind 
has  difficulty  in  passing  readily  through  many  different 
views  of  the  same  object,  presented  in  jquick  succession. 

The  last  rule  concerning  metaphors,  is,  tlmt  they  be  not 
too  far  pursued.  If  the  resemblance,  on  which  the  figure 
is  founded,  be  long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its 
minute  circumstances,  we  tire  the  reader,  who  soon 
^grows  weary  of  this  stretch  of  fancy;  and  we  render  our 
discourse  obscure.  This  is. called  straimng  a  metaphor. 
Authors  of  a  lively  and  strong  imagination  are  apt  to  run 
into  this  exuberance  of  metaphor.  When  they  hit  upon 
a  figure  that  pleases  them,  they  are  loth  to  part  with  it, 
and  frequently  continue  it  se  long,  as  to  become  .tedious 


Figures.]  perspicuity^  Sec,  291 

and  intricate.     We  may  observe,  for  insUnce,  how  tlte 
following  metaphor  i*-spim  out. 

Thy  tlioiiglits  are  vfisnbonds;  all  outward  bound, 

'Mulst  surids,  aud  ruck?,  aiid  storms,  to  cruise  for  pleasure; 

If  ^ain'd,  dear  bouglil:  and  t>ettern)Ks'd  than  gain 'd 

l^'aucy  and  sense,  from  an  iiifectcii  shore, 

Thy  carg-o  briii<j[;  ujid  }>e-stilence  the  prize- 

Tlien  such  a  thirst,  insatiable  thirst, 

Dy  fond  indulgeiscki  but  iniJam'd  the  more; 

Fancy  fet4U  cruises,  wiicn  poor  sense  is  tired. 

An  Allegory  may  be  rei^ardcd  as  a  metaphor  continiied. 
since  it  is  the  representation  of  some  one  thing  by  another 
that  resembles  it,  and  which  is  made  to  stand  for  it.  We 
may  take  from  the  Scriptures  a  very  fine  example  of  an 
4iilegory»  in  the  80th  Psalm;  where  the  people  of  Israel 
are  represented  under  the  imageof  a  vine:  and  the  figure 
is  carried  throughout  vith  great  exactness  and  beauty. 
"Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt:  thou  hast  cast 
out  the  heathen  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room 
before  itf  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it 
filled  the  land*  The  hill.s  were  covered  with  the  shadow 
of  it:  and  the  boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars-. 
She  sent  out  her  bought,  into  the  sea,  and  her  branches 
into  the  river.  Why  hast  thou  broken  down  her  hedges-, 
sa  that  aH-  they  which  pass  by  the  way  do  pluck  her: 
The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  w  ih! 
beast  of  the  field  doil^  devour  it.  Return,  we  beseech 
Uiee,  O  God  of  Hosts,  look  down  from  heaven,  and  be- 
held, and  visit  this  vinei"   See  also  Ezekiel,  xvii.  22<*2  U 

The  first  and  principal  requisite  in  the  conduct  of  a:i 
allegory,  is,  that  the  figunitive  and  the  literal  meaning  he 
not  mixed  ijiconsisteni/y  together.  Indeed,  all  the  rules 
that  were  given  for  metaphors,  may  also  be  applied  to 
allegories,  on  acco\jnt  of  the  affinity  they  bear  to  each 
other.  The  onlf  material  ditTtfrence  between  them,  be- 
sides the  one  being  short  and  the  other  being  prolonged. 
is,  that  a  metaphor  always  explains  itself  by  the  word;s 
that  are  connected  with  it  in  their  proper  and  natural 
meaning:  as,  when  I  say,  *'Achilles  was  a  lion;"  "An 
able  minister  is  the  pillar  of  the  state;"  the  "lion"  and 
the  *'pillar"  are  sufficiently  interpreted  by  the  mention 
of  "Achilles"  and  the  ''minister,'*  which  I  join  to  them; 
but  an  allegory  is,  or  may  be,  allowed  to  stand  less  con- 
fiijeted  with  the-literal  meaning,  the  interpretation  not 


292  APREXDix.  fFigwres., 

Iveing;  so  directly  pointed  out,  butl^fi.  to  our  own  reflec- 
tion. 

A  11^:^0  ry  vas  a  fa"v'ourite  rnetbod  of  delivering;  instruc- 
tion ifi  ancient  times;  (ov  what  we  call  f.ibles  or  parables, 
are  r.o  other  than  alleg-ofies.  By  words  and  actions 
atti'ib-ucd  to  beasts  or  inanlviTate  objects,  the  dispositions 
(.f  r!">cn  .w.ere  fiii^ured:  and  what  we  call  the  moral,  is  the 
n^fi-^iired  sense  or  meaning  of.the  allegory. 

A  L\iriijmn>:onov  iyin!,'il\\'\'i,  when  the  resemblance  be- 
tween t'.vo  objects  is  exprsasel  in  form^  and  generally 
pursued  more  fally  than  the  nature  of  a  metaphoV  ad- 
mits: as  v/hen  it  is  said,  ""^The  actions  of  princes  are  like 
rio«;e  great  rivers,  the  course  of  which  every  one  be- 
I'.oids.  b.tt  their  springs  have  been  seen  by  few."  ''^As 
the  mo'intains  are  round  about  Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord 
is  round  about  his.  people. "  *'Ijehold.  how  good  and 
how  pleasant  it  is  for  brethren  to  dwell  together  in. 
ntntyl  It  is  like  the  precious  ointment,  Sec.  and  as  the, 
dew  that  descended' upon  the  mountains  of  Zion." 

The  advantage  of  this  fignire  u rises  from  the  illustra-, 
lion  which  the  sin>ile  employed  gives  to  the  principal 
♦  »bject;  from  the  clearer  view  which  it  presents;  or  the 
more  strong  impression  Which  it  stamps  upon  the  mind. 
Observe  tneeiiect  of  it  in  the  following  instance.  The 
aulhui-  is  explainiivg'  the  distinction  between  thepowers 
of  £en^:e  and  imagination  in  the  human  miiKi.  "As  v/ax," 
says  ho.  '•'would  not  l*e  adequate  to  tlie  purpose  of  sig- 
nature, i"  it  had  not  tha  power  to  i-etain  as  well  as  to  re- 
ceive the  impression,  the  same  holds  of  the  soul  with 
respe-ji  to  -ieiiie  and  imagination.  Sense  is  its  receptive 
nov/eij  imagination,  its  retentive.  Had  it  sense  with- 
out irn?.glnatioTK  it  would  not  be  as  wax,  but  as  water,- 
vv'here,  though  all  impie'^sions  are  instantly  made,  yet 
as  soon  as  they  are maae,  they  are  instantly  lost." 

In  comparisons  of  this  nr^ture,  the  understanding  is 
concerned  much  more  than  the  fancy,:  and  therefore  the 
rules  to  be  observed,  with  respect  to  them,  are,  that 
they  be  clear,  and  that  they  be  useful.:  that  they  tend  to 
render  our  conception  of  the  principal  objects  more  dis- 
tinct; and  that  they  do  not  lead  our  view  aside,  and  be- 
wilder it  with  any  false  light.  We  should  always  re- 
member that  similies  are  not  arguments.  However  apt 
ihey  may  be,  they  dg  no  more  than  explain  the  Avriter^a 


rlgures.J  PERSpreuiTV,  8tc.  293 

sentiments,  they  do  not  prove  them  to  be  founded  on 
t:roth. 

Comparisons  ought  not  to  be'  founded  on  likenesses 
which  are  too  faint  and  remote.  For  these,  in  place  of 
assisting,  strain  the -mind  to  comprehend  them,  and 
throw  no  light  upon  the  subject.^  It  is  -also  to  be  ob- 
served, that  a  comparison  which,  in  the  principal  cir- 
cumstances, carries  a  sufficiently  near  resemblance,  may 
be'come  unnatural  and  obscure,  if  pushed  too  far.  No- 
thing is  more  opposite  to  the  deM;j;n  of-this  figure,  than 
to  hunt  after  a  great  number  of  cvolacidences  in  minute 
points,  merely  to  show  how  far  the  writer's  ingenuity 
can  stretch  the  resemblance.- 

A  Metonymy  is  founded  on  the  several  relations,  of 
cause  and  eifect,  containt^r  and  contained,  sign  and  thing 
signified.  When  we  say;  "They  read  iMilton,"  the  cause 
is  put  instead  of  the  effect;  mertning  ^'Milton's  works." 
On  tlie  other  hand,  when  it  is  said,  *'Gray  hairs  should 
be  respected,"'  we  put  the  effect  for  the  cause,  meaning 
by  * 'gray  hairs,"  o/V/  a^e.  ''The  kettle  boils,"  is  a 
phrase  where  the  name  of  the  container  is  substituted 
for  that  of  the  thing  contained.  ''To  assume  the  scep-*^ 
tre,"  is  a  common  expression  for  entering  on  royal  au- 
thority; the  sign  being  put  for  the  thing  signified. 

^V'hen  the  whole  is  put  for  apart,  or  a  part  for  the 

hole;  a  genus  for  a  species,  .or  a  species  ior  a  genus: 
iu  general,  when  any  thing  less,  or  any  thing  more,  is 
put  for  the  precise  object  meant;  the  figure  is  then  call- 
ed a  Synecdoche  ov  Comprehension.  It  is  very  common, 
for  instance,  to  describe  a  whole  object  by  some  remark- 
able part  of  it:  as  when  we  say,  '^a  fleet  of  twenty  sflreV,'" 
in  the  place  of  '•^ships;''  when  we  tise  the  ^^head"  for  the 
^^person^''  the  ^^waves''  for  the  ''^eo."  In  like  manner, 
an  attribute  may  be  put  for  a  subject:  as,  ''Youth"  for- 
the  "young,"  the  "deep^"  for  the  * 'sea;"  and  sometimes 
a  subject  for  its  attribute. 

Personification  or  Prosopopoeia,  is  that  figure  by  which 
"we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects.  The 
use  of  this  figure  is  very  natural  and  extensive:  there  is 
a  wonderful  proneness  in  human  nature,  under  emotion, 
to  animate  all  objects.  When  we  say,  "the  ground  thirsts 
(at  rain,"  or,  "the  earth  smiles  with  plenty;"  when  we 
speak  of  "ambition*s  being  re*//e55,"  or,  *'a  disease's, 
B  b  3  . 


394  APPEXDix*  [Figuresv 

beini^  deceilfal/'  such  expressions  show  the  facility  with 
which  the  mind  can  accommodate  the  properties  of  liv- 
ing; creatures  to  things  that  are  inanimate,  or  to  abstract 
conceptions  of  its  own  forming.  The  following  are 
striking  exarnple:,s  from  the  Scriptures:  '*When  Israel 
went  out  of  Egypt,  the  house  of  Judah  from  a  people  of 
strange  lang'jage:  the  ^ea  saw  it,  and  fled:  Jordan  was 
driven  back!  Thi:  mountains  skipped  like  rartis,  and 
the  little  hills  like  lambs.  What  ailed  thee,  O  thou  sea! 
that  thou  fleddest?  Thou  Jordan,  that  thou  wast  driven  - 
back?  Ye  mountains,  that  ye  skipped  like  rams;  and  ye 
little  hills,  like  lambs?  Tremble,  thou  earth,  at  the  pre- 
sence of  the  Lord,  at  the  presence  of  the  Ciod  of  Jacob." 
^''The  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  shall  be  glad 
for  them:  and  the  desert  shall  rejoice  and  blossom  as 
the  rose." 

Milton  thus  describes  the  immediate  effects  of  eating 
the  forbidden  frurt.     Terror  produces  the  figure. 

Karih  trembled  fi-oni  her  entrails,  as  again 

In  pangs,  aatl  nature  gave  a  second  groan; 

fcky  Jow'r'd,  and.  riiuti  t!»g  thuDikr,  some  sad  drops 

^''/ept  at  completing  of  llie  mortal  sin. 
The  impatience  of  Adam  to  know  his  origin,  is  sup- 
posed to  prompt  the  personification  of  all  the  objects  he 
beheld,  in  order  to  procure  information. 
Thou  sun,  said  I,  fair  light! 

And  thou  enlighten'd  earth,  so  fresh  and  gay! 

Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye  rivers,  wootls,  and  plains, 

And  ye  that  live  and  move,  fair  creatures,  tell, 

Tell,  if  you  saw,  how  came  I  thus,  how  here? 
We  shall  give  a  remarkably  fine  example  of  this  figurje,-. 
from  bishop  Sherlock.     He  has  beautifully  personified  - 
Natural  Religion:  and  we  may  perceive,  in  the  personifi- 
cation, the  spirit  and  grace  which  the  figure,  when  well 
conducted,  bestpws  on  discourse.     The  author  is  com- 
paring together  our  Saviour  and  Mahomet.     *'Go  (says. 
he)  to  your  Natural  Religion:  lay  before  her  Mahomet^, 
and  his  disciples,  arrayed  in  armour  and  blood,  riding 
in  triumph  over  the  spoils  of  thousands  who  fell  by  his 
victorious  sword.     Show  her  the  cities  which  he  set  in 
flames,  the  countries  which  he  ravaged  and  destroyed, 
and  the  miserable  distress  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth.     When  she,  has  viewed  him  in  this  scene,  carry 
her  into  his  retirement;  show  her  the  Prophet's  cham- 
ber; his  concubines  and  his  wives;  and  let  her  hear  him 


Figures.]  rERSwcurry,  &c.  295 

allege  revelation,  and  a  Divine  command,  to  justify  his 
adultery  and  lust." 

'*When  she  is  tired  with  this  prospect,  then  show  her 
the  blessed  Jesus,  humble  and  meek,  doing  good  to  all 
the  sons  of  men.  Let  her  see  him  in  his  most  retired 
privacies^  let  her  follow  him  to  the  mount,  and  hear  his 
devotions  and  supplications- to  God.  Carry  her  to  his 
table,  to  view  his  poor  fare;  and  hear  his  heavenly  dis- 
course. Let  her  attend  him  to  the  tribunal-,  and  con- 
sitler  the  patiejice  with  wliich  he  endured  the  scoffs  and 
reproaches  of  his  enemies.  Lead  her  to  his  cross;, let 
her  view  him  in  the  agony  of  death,  and  hear  his  last 
prayer  for  his  persecutors;  'Father,  foi-give  them,  for 
they  know  not  what  they  do.' — When  Natural  Religion, 
has  thus  viewed  both,  ask  her,  which  is  the  Prophet  of 
God.^ — But  her  answer  we-.have  already  had,  when  she 
saw  part  of  this  scene,  through  theeyes^of  the  Centurion^ 
w^ho  attended  at  the  cross.  B-y  him  she  spoke,  and  said, 
'Truly  this  man  was  the  Son  of  God.'  "  This  is  more 
than  elegant;  it  is  truly  sublime.  The  whole  passage  is 
animated;,  and  the  figure  rises  at  the  conclusion,  when 
Natural  Religion,  who,  before,  was  only  a  spectator,  is 
introduced  as  speaking  by  the  Centmion's  voice. 

This  figure  of  speech  is  sometimes  very  improperly 
and  extravagantly  applied.  A  capital  error  in  personi- 
fying objects,  is,  to  deck  them  with  fantastic  and  trifling 
circumstances.  A  practice  of  this  sort  dissolves  the 
potent  charm  which  enchants  and  deceives  the  reader; 
and  either  leaves  him  dissatisfied,  or  excites,  perhaps,, 
his  risibility. 

Another  error,  frequent  in  descriptive  personifications, 
consists  in  introducing  them,  when  the  subject  of  discus- 
sion is  destitute  of  dignity,  and  the  reader  is  not  prepared 
to  relish  them.     One  can  scarcely  peruse,  with  compo- 
sure, the  following  use  of  this  figure.   It  is  the  language 
of  our  elegant  poet  Thomson,  who  thus  personifies  and 
connects  the  bodily  appetites,  and  their  gratifications. 
Then  sated  Hunger  bids  his  brother  Thirst 
Produce  the  miehty  bowl: 
Nor  wanting  is  the  brown  October,  drawn 
Mature  and  perfect,  from  his  dark  retreat 
Of  thirty  years:  and  now  his  honest  front 
Flames  in  the  light  refulgent. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  concerning  this  figure,  and  short 


0^6  APPENDIX.  [Figures.  . 

metaphors  and  similies,  which  also  have  been  alloweci 
to  be  the  proper  language  r)f  high  passion,  thattheyafc 
the  proper  expressioii  ot  it,  only  on  those. occasions  when 
it.is  so  far  moderated  as  to  admit  of  words.  The  first  and 
highest  transports  seem  to  overwhelm  the  mind,-  and 
are  denoted  by  silence  or  groans:  next  succeeds  the  via- 
l"e]BLt.anclpassionatelanguage,  of  which  these  figures  coTVr 
stitute  a  great  part.  Such- agitation,  however,  cannot 
long  continue;  the  passions  having  spent  their  force,  the 
mind  soon  subsides  into  that  exhausted  and  dispirited  . 
ri-tate,  in  which  all. figures  are  improper. 

Jlpostr&phe  is  a  turning  off  from  the  regular  course  of 
the  subject,  to  address  some  person  or  thing;  as,  "Death 
\h  swallowed  up  in  victory.  O  death!  where  is  thy 
sting?  O  grave!  where  is  thy  victory?" 

The  following  is  an  instance  of' personification  and., 
apostrophe  united:  "O  thou  sword  of  the  Lord!  how  long 
will,  it  be  ere  thou  be  quiet?  put  thyself  up  intothy  scab- 
bard, rest  and  be  still!  How  can  it  be  quiet,  seeing  the 
Lord  hath  given  it  a  charge  against  A skelon,  and  agains'- 
Ihe  sea-shore?  there  hath  he  appointed  it."  See  also 
an  extraordinary  >example  of  these  figures,  in  the  I4lh 
chapter- of  Isaiah,  from  the  4th  to  the  19th  verse,  where 
the  prophet  describes  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire. 

A  principal  error,  in  the  use  of  the  Apostrophe,  is\ 
to  deck  the  object  addressed  with  affected  ornamentsr 
by  which  authors  relinquish  the  expression  of  passion, 
:md  substitute  for  it  the  language  of  fancy. 

Another  frequent  -error  is,  to  extend  this  figure  to  too. 
great  length.  The  language  of  violent  passion  is  always 
concise,  and  often  abrupt.  It  passes  sudd'cnly  from  one 
object  to  another.  It  often  glances  at  a  thought,  starts 
from  it,  and  leaves  it  unfinished.  The  succession  of 
ideas  is  irregular,  and  connected  by  distant  and  uncom- 
mon relations.  Onfall  these  accounts,  nothing  is  more 
untiaturalthan  long  speeches,  uttered  by  persons  undeV 
Ihc  influence  of  strong  passions.  Yet  this  error  occurs- 
in  several  poets  of  distinguished  reputation. 

The  next  figure  in  .order,  is  Jlntithesis.  Comparison  is 
founded  on  the  resemblance;  antithesis,  on  the  contrast 
OF  opposition  of  two  objects.  Contrast  has  always  the 
effect,  to  make  each  of  the  contrasted  objects  appear  in 
tlxe  stronger  light.    White,  for  instance,  never  appears  : 


rigures.]  rERsncuixy,   &c.  297 

so  bright  as  when  it  is  opposed  to  black;  and  when  both 
:  viewed  together.  An  author,  in  his  defence  of  a 
ifiu'l  against  the  charge  of  murder,  expresses  himself 
thus:  -'Can  you  believe  that  the  person  whom  he  scru- 
pled to  slay,  when  he  might  have  done  so  with  full  jus- 
tice, in  a  convenient  place,  at  a  proper  time,  v/ith  secure 
impunity;  he  made  no  scruple  to  murder  against  justice, 
in  an  nnfdvourahle  place,  at  an  unseasonable  time,  and 
at  the  risk  of  capital  condemnation?" 

The  followiiig  examples  further  iUastrate  thisffgure.. 

Tho'  deep,  yet  elevir;  tho'  gentle,  yet  not  dui!;. 

Sti'ong,  without  rage;  withiiat  u'er-'ovvmg-,  full.  ^^ 

**If  you  wish  to  enrich  a  person^study  not  to  increase 
ITis  stores,  but  to  diminish  his  desires." 

•'If  you  regulate  your  desires  according  to  the  stand- 
ard of  nature,  you  will  never  be  poor;  if  according  to 
the  standard  of  opinion,   you  will -ipvei'  be  rich." 

A  maxim,  crnioral  saying,  very  properly, receives  the 
form  of  the  two  last  examples;  both  because  it  is  sup- -^ 
posed  to  bc^the  fruit  of  meditation,  and  because  it  is  de- 
sigiied  to  be  engraven  on.  the  memory,  which  recals  it 
more  easily  by  the  help  of  such  contrasted  expressions. 
Buc  v.'here  such  sentences  frequently  succeed  each  other; 
Vvhert  this  becomes  an  author's  favourite  and  prevailing 
maimer  of  expressing  liimself,  his  style  appears  too 
FiUich  studied  and  laboured;  it  gives  us  the  impression 
of  an,aiithor  attending  more  to  his  manner  of  saying 
things,  thap  to  the  things  themselves. 

The  followint^-  is  a  beautiful  example  of  Antithesis. 
••'If  ('ato  may  be  censured,  severely  indeed,  but  justly^ 
for  abandoning  the  cause  of  liberty,  which  he  would  not, 
Jvqwever,  survive:  what  shall  we  say  of  those,  Vvho  e?n- 
brace  it  faintly,  pursue  it  irresolutely,  grow  tired  of  it 
when  they  have  much  to  hope,  and  give  it  up  when  they 
luive  nothing  to  fear.^" — The  capital  antithesis  of  this 
sentence,  is  instituted  between  the,  zeal  of  Cato  for  liber- 
ty, and  the  indifference  of  some  others  of  her  patrons. 
But,  besides  the  leading  antithesis,  there  are  two  sul>or- 
dinate  ones,  in  the  latter  member:  **Grow  tired  of  it, 
when  they  have  much  to  hope:  and  give  it  up,  when 
they  have  nothing  to  fear." 

The  eloquent  Burke  has  exhibited  a  fine  instance  of^ 
this  figure,  in  his  eulogium  of  the  philanthropic  Howard 


^98  APPENDIX.  [Figures,^ 

''He  hqts  visited  all  Europe, — not  to  survey  the  sump^ 
tuousness  of  palaces,  or  the  stateliness  of  temples;  not  to 
make  accurate  mrasurements  of  the  remains  of  ancient 
i^randeur,  nor  to  form  a  scale  cf  the  curiosity  of  modenv 
arts;  nor  to  colic  t  medals,  or  collate  manuscripts: — but  ' 
to  dive  into  the  depths  of  dungeons;  to  plunge  into  the 
infection  of  hospitals;  to  survey  the  mansions  of  sorrow 
and  pain;  to  take  the  gage,  and  dimensions  of  misery, 
depression,  and  contempt;  to  remember  the  forgotten,  .to 
attend  to  the  neglected,  to  visit  the  forsaken,  and  coni- 
pare  and  collate  the  distresses  of  all  men,  in  all  countries.'    . 

The  next  figure  concerning  which  we  are  to  treat  t^.' 
called  Hyperbole  ov  Exagf^eration.     It,,  consists  in  magni- 
fying an  object  beyond  its  natural  bounds.     In  all  hy^- 
guages,  even  in  common  conversation,  hyperbolical  ex- 
pressions very  frequently  occur:  as  swift  as  the  wind:  ^ 
as  white  as  the  snow;  and   the  like;  and  the  common 
fv5rms  of  compliment,  are  almost  allof  them  extravagant 
hyperboles.     If  any  thing  be  remarkably  good  or  gie^t  ' 
in  its  kind,  we  are  instantly  ready  to  add  to  it  some  ex- 
aggerating epithet,   and  to  make  it  the  greatest  or  best 
v/.e  ever  saw.   The  imagination  has  always  a  tendency  to 
gratiiy  itself,  by  magnifying  its  present  object,  and  car- 
rying it  to  excess.     More  or  less  of  this  hyperbolical  ' 
turn  will  prevail  in  language,  according  to  the  liveliness 
of  imagination  among  the  people  who  speak  it.   Hence 
young  people  deal  much  in  hyperboles.   Hence  the  Ian- 
gu-jge  of  the  Orientals  was  far  more  hyperbolical,  than 
that  of  the  Europeans,  who  are  of  more  phlegmatic,  or, 
perhaps  .we   may  say,    of  more   correct  imagination. 
Hence,  among  all  writers  in  early  times,  and  in  the  rudn 
periods  of  society,  we  may  expect  this  figure  to  abound. 
Greater  experience,  and  more  cultivated  society,  abate 
the  warmth  of  imagination,  and  chasten  the  manner  ©r' 
expression. 

Hyperboles  are  of  two  kinds;  either  such  as  are  em- 
ployed in  description,  or  such  as  are  sug:gested  by  the 
warmth  of  passion.  All  passions  without  exception, 
love,  terror,  amazement,  indignation,  and  even  grief, 
throw  the  mind  into  confusion,  aggravate  their  objects, 
and  of  course  prompt  a  hyperbolical  style.  Hence  thp  ' 
following  sentiments  of  Satan  in  Milton,  as  strongly  as  ., 
they  are  described,,  contain  nothing  but  whatis  niiturat-v 


^Figui-es.*]  pERspictiTY,  &C.  Sl&g 

jfind  proper,  exhibiting  the  picture  of  a  mind  agitatexi 
-with  rage  and  despair. 

Me,  miserable!  which  way  shall  I  fly- 
Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair? 
Which  way  1  fly  is  Hell,  myself  am  Hell; 
And  in  the  lowest  depth,  a  lower  deep, 
6till  threat'nittg  to  devour  me,  opens  witJe, 
To  which  the  Hell  I  isti^ffer  seems  a  Heaven. 

The  fear  of  an  enemy  augments  the  Conceptions  oftKc 

-size  of  their  leader.    *•!  saw  their  chief,"  says  the  scout 

of  Ossian,  ^Hall  as  a  rock  of  ice;   liis  spear,  the  blasted 

;iir5  his  shield,  the  rising  moon:  he  sat  on  the  shore  like 

a  cloud  of  mist  on  the  hill.'" 

The  errors  frequent  in  the  use  of  Hyperboles,  arise 
either  from  overstraining,  or  introducing  them  on  un- 
suitable occasions.  Dryden,  in  his  poem  on  the  resto- 
ration of  king  Charles  the  Second,  compliments  that 
monarch,  at  the  expense  of  the  sun  himself. 

That  star  at  yocr  birth" shone  out  so  bright, 
It  stain'd-the  duller  sun's  meridian  light 

This  is  indeed  mere  bombast.  It  is  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain, by  any  precise  rule,  the  proper  measure  and 
boundary  of  this  figure.  Good  sense  and  just  taste  tnvst 
determine  the  point,  beyond  -which,  if  we  pass,  we  be- 
come extravagant. 

Vision  is  another  figure  of  speech,  which  is  proper 
only  in  animated  and  warm  composition.  It  is  produce<t 
when,  instead  of  relating  something  that  is  past,  we  use 
the  present  tense,  and  describe  it  as  actually  passTrij^ 
before  our  eyes.  Thus,  Cicero,  in  his  fourth  oration 
against  Catiline:   '*I  seem  to  myself  to  behold  this  city, 

'the  ornament  of  the  earth,  and  the  capital  Of  all  natit)ns, 
suddenly  involved  in  one  conflagration.  I  see'beforeme 
the  slaughtered  heaps  6f  citizens,  lying  unburied  in  the 

4nidst  of  their  ruined  country.  The  furious  countenanre 
of  Cethegus  rises  to  my  view,  while,  with  a  tiavage  joy, 
he  is  triumphing  in  your  miseries." 

This  manner  of  description  supposes  a  sort  of  enthu- 
siasm, which  carries  the  person  who  describes,  in  somfr 

measure  out  of  himself;  and,  when  well  executed,  mus^ 
needs,  by  the  force  of  sympathy,  impress  the  reader  or 

^hearer  very  strongly.  But,  in  order  to  a  successful  exe- 
;:ution,  it  requires  an  uncommonly  warm  imagination, 


oOO  APVENiD'lx.  [Figures. 

and  so  happy  a  selection  of  circumstances,  as  shall 
make  us  think  we  see  before  our  eyes  the  scene  that  is 
described. 

Interrogation.  The  unfig;ured,  literal  use  of  intei-rogu- 
tion,  is  to  ask  a  question:  but  when  men  are  stron:^lv 
moved,  whatever  they  would  affirm  or  deny,  with  ^reut 
earnestness,  they  naturally  put  in  the  form  of  a  ctucstion, 
expressing  thereby'tlie  strongest  confidence  ofthetrut;; 
of  their  own  sentiment,  and  appealing  to  their  hearc: 
for  the  impossibility  of  the  contrary.  Thus  Balaum  ex- 
pressed himself  to  Balak.  ''The  Lord  is  not  a  man  that 
he  should  lie,  neither  the  son  of  man  that  he  should 
repent.  Hath  Tie  said  it?  and  shall  he  not  do  it?  Hath 
he  spoken  it?  and  shall  he  not  make  it  good?" 

Interrogatioji  gives  life  and  spirit  to  discburse.  We 
see  this  in  the  animated,  introductor)^i.peech  of  Cicero 
against  Catiline;  "Hov/  long  will  you,  Catiline,  abuse  our 
patience?  Do  you  not  perceive  that  your  designs  are  dis- 
covered?"— He  might  "indeed  have  said;  *'You  abuse 
our  patience  a  long  while.  You  must  be  sensible,  tb.at 
your  designs  are  discovered."  But  it  is  easy  to  perceive, 
how  much  this  latter  mode  of  expression  falls  short  of 
the  force  and  vehemence  of  the  former. 

Exclamations  are  the  efiect  of  strong  emotions  of  the 
mind:  such  as,  surprise,  admiration,  joy,  grief,  and  the 
like.  **Wo  is  me  that  T  sojourn  in  Mesech,  that  i  dwell 
in  the  tents  of  Kedarl"  Psalms. 

"O  that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a  foun- 
tain of  tears,  that  I  might  weep  day  and  night,  for  the 
slain  of  the  daughter  of  my  people!  C)  that  I  had  \n  t  k 
wilderness  a  lodging-place  of  wayfaring  m^nl"  Jetxinv!';. 

Though  interrogations  may  be  introduced  into  c'o-r; 
and  earnest  reasoning,  exclamations  belong  only  ■> 
strong  emotions  of  the  mind.  When  judiciously  empn  y- 
ed,  they  agitate  the  hearer  or  the  reader  with  sir.ii!  .r 
j)assions:  but  it  is  extremely  impro])er,  and  souieiimcs 
ridiculous,  to  use  them  on  trivial  occtisions,  and  on  mc^u 
or  low  subjects.  The  unexperienced  writer  often  atteuinis 
to  elevate  his  language,  by  the  copious  display  of  th's 
figure:  but  he  rarely  or  never  succeeds.  He  ftvMjueJt'.ly 
renders  his  composition  frigid  to  excess,  or  ubsolutoly 
ludicrous,  by  calling  on  us  to  enter  into  his  transpOii?!, 
'vlien  nothing  is  said  ^r  done  to  demand  emotiuu. 


"Fig^ures.]  perspicuity,  Ecc.  501 

Irony  is  expressing  ourselves  in  a  manner  contrary  to 
our  thoughts,  not  with  a  view  to  deceive,  but  to  add  force 
to  our  observations.  Persons  may  be  reproved  for  their 
negligqpce,  by  saying;  "You  have  taken  great  care  in- 
deed." Cicero  says  of  the  person  against  whom  he  was 
I  pleading;  "We  have  great  reason  to  believe  that  the 
I  modest  man  would  not  ask  him  for  his  debt,  when  he 
pursues  his  life." 

I  Ironical  exhortation  is  a  very  agreeable  kind  of  figure; 
which,  after  having  set  the  inconveniences  of  a  thing, 
in  the  clearest  light,  concludes  with  a  feigned  encou- 
ragement to  pursue  it.  Such  is  that  of  Horace,  when 
having  beautifully  described  the  noise  and  tumults  of 
Rome,  he  adds  ironically; 

"Go  now,  and  study  tuneful  verse  at  Rome.' 

The  subjects  of  Irony  are  vices  and  follies  of  all  kinds; 
and  this  mode  of  exposing  them,  is  often  more  effectual 
than  serious  reasoning.  The  gravest  persons  have  not 
declined  the  use  of  this  figure,  on  proper  occasions.  The 
wise  and  virtuous  Socrates  made  great  use  of  it,  in  his 
endeavours  to  discountenance  vicious  and  foolish  prac- 
tices. Even  in  the  sacred  writings,  we  have  a  remarkable 
instance  of  it.  The  prophet  Elijah,  when  he  challenged 
the  priests  of  Baal  to  prove  the  truth  of  their  deity, 
"mocked  them,  and  said:  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god; 
either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  jour- 
ney, or  perad venture  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  awaked." 

Exclamations  and  Irony  are  sometimes  united:  as  in 
Cicero's  oration  for  Balbus,  where  he  derides  his  ac- 
cuser, by  saying:  "O  excellent  interpreter  of  the  law! 
master  of  antiquity!  corrector  and  amender  of  our  con- 
stitution!" 

The  last  figure  of  s])eech  that  we  shall  mention,  is 
what  writers  call  Amplification  or  Climax.  It  consists  lii 
heightening  all  the  circumstances  of  an  object  or  action, 
which  we  desire  to  place  in  a  strong  light.  Cicero  givers 
a  lively  instance  of  this  figure,  when  he  says;  "It  is  a 
crime  to  put  a  Roman  citizen  in  bonds;  it  is  the  height 
of  guilt  to  scourge  him;  little  less  than  parricide  to  put 
him  to  death:  what  name  then  shall  I  give  to  the  act  of 
crucifying  him?" 

Archbishop  Tillotson  uses  this  figure  very  happily,  to 
recommend  good  and  vktuous  actions:  "After  we  l\ave 


302  APPENDIX.  [Figures.! 

practised  good  actions  awhile,  they  become  easy;  and 
-vvhen  they  are  easy,  we  begin  to  take  pleasure  in  them; 
and  when  they  please  us,  we  do  them  frequently;  and 
by  frequency  of  acts,  a  thing  grows  into  a  habit;  and  con- 
firmed habit  is  a  kind  of  second  nature;  and  so  far  as 
any  thing  is  natural,  so  far  it  is  necessary;  and  we  can 
hardly  do  otherwise;  nay,  we  do  it  many  times  when 
we  do  not  think  of  it." 

We  «ball  conclude  this  article  with  an  example  of  a 
beautiful  climax,  taken  from  the  charge  of  a  judge  to  the 
jury,  in  the  case  of  a  woman  accused  of  murdering  her 
own  child.  ''Gentlemen,  if  one  man  had  any  how  slain 
another;  if  an  adversary  had  killed  his  opposer,  or  a 
woman  occasioned  the  death  of  her  enemy;  even  these 
criminals  would  have  been  capitally  punished  by  the 
Cornelian  law;  but  if  this  guiltless  infant,  that  could 
make  no  enemy,  had  been  murdered  by  its  own  nurse, 
what  punishment  would  not  then  the  mother  have  de- 
manded? With  what  cries  and  exclamations  would  she 
have  stunned  your  ears?  What  shgll  we  say  then,  when 
a  woman,  guilty  of  homicide,  a  mother,  of  the  murder 
of  her  innocent  child,  hath  comprised  all  those  misdeeds 
in  one  single  crime,^  a  crime,  in  its  own  nature,  detesta- 
ble; in  a  woman,  prodigious;  in  a  mother,  incredible; 
and  perpetrated  against  one  whose  age  called  for  com- 
passion, whose  near  relation  claimed  affection,  and 
whose  innocence  deserved  the  highest  favour.'* 

We  have  now  finished  what  was  proposed,  concerning 
Perspicuity  in  single  words  and  phrases,  and  the  accu- 
rate construction  of  sentences.  The  former  has  been 
considered  under  the  heads  of  Purity,  Propriety,  and 
Precision;  and  the  latter,  under  those  of  Clearness, 
Unity,  Strength,  and  the  proper  use  of  Figurative  Lan- 
.guage.  Though  many  of  these  attentions  which  have 
been  recommended,  may  appear  minute,  yet  their  effect 
upon  writing  and  style,  ismuch  greater  than  might,  at 
first,  be  imagined.  A  sentiment  which  is  expressed  in 
accurate  language,  and  in  a  period,  clearly,  neatly,  and 
well  arranged,  always  makes  a  stronger  impression  on 
the  mind,  than  one  that  is  expressed  inaccurately,  or  in 
a  feeble  or  embarrassed  manner.  Every  one  feels  this 
upon  a  comparison:  and  if  the  effect  be  sensible  in  ohp 


Figures.]  perspicuity,  &c.  303 

sentence,  how  much  more  in  a  whole  discourse,  or  com- 
position that  is  made  up  of  such  sentences? 

The  fundamental  rule  for  writing  with  accuracy,  and 
into  which  all  others  might  be  resolved,  undoubtedly  is, 
to  communicate^)  in  correct  language,  and  in  the  clearest  and 
most  natural  order,  the  ideas  ivhich  we  mean  to  transfuse  into 
\  the  minds  of  otlicrs.  Such  a  selection  and  arrangement  of 
j  words,  as  do  most  justice  to  the  sense,  and  express  it  to 
j  most  advantage,  make  an  agreeable  and  strong  impres- 
sion. To  these  points  have  tended  all  the  rules  which 
have  been  given.  Did  we  always  think  clearly,  and  were 
we,  at  the  same  time,  fully  masters  of  the  language  iii 
which  we  write,  there  would  be  occasion  for  few  rules. 
Our  sentences  would  then,  of  course,  acquire  all  those 
properties  of  clearness,  unity,  strength,  and  accuracy, 
which  have  been  recommeHded.  For  we  may  rest  as- 
sured, that  whenever  we  express  ourselves  ill,  besides 
the  mismanagement  of  language,  there  is,  for  the  most 
part,  some  mistake  in  our  manner  of  conceiving  the 
subject.  Embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  sentences, 
are  generally,  if  not  always,  the  result  of  embarrassed, 
obscure,  and  feeble  thought.  Thought  and  expression 
act  and  re-act  upon  each  other.  The  understanding  and 
language  have  a  strict  connexion;  and  they  who  are 
learning  to  compose  and  arrange  their  sentences  with 
accuracy  and  order,  are  learning,  at  the  same  time,  to 
think  with  accuracy  and  order;  a  consideration  which 
alone  will  recompense  the  student,  for  his  attention  to 
this  branch  of  literature.  For  afurther  explanation  of  the 
Figures  of  Speech,  see  the  Octavo  Cframmar,  on  this  subjects 


ADDRESS 
TO  YOUNG  STUDENTS. 


The  Compiler  of  these  elements  of  the  English  language,  hopes 
it  will  not  be  deemed  inconsistent  with  the  nature  and  design  oi 
his  work,  to  make  a  short  address  to  the  young  persons  engaged  in 
the  study  of  it,  respecting  their  future  walks  in  the  paths  of  lite- 
rature, and  the  chief  purpose  to  which  they  should  apply  their 
acquisitions. 

In  forming  this  Grammar,  and  the  volume  of  Illustrations  con- 
nected with  it,  the  author  was  influenced  by  a  desire  to  facilitate 
your  progress  in  learning,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  impress  on 
your  minds  principles  of  piety  and  virtue.  He  wished  also  to  as- 
sist, in  some  degree,  the  labours  of  those  wIk)  are  cultivating  your 
understandings,  and  providing  for  you  a  fund  of  rational  and  use- 
ful employnnent;  an  employment  calculated  to  exclude  those  fri- 
volous pursuits,  and  that  love  of  ease  and  sensual  pleasure,  which 
enfeeble  and  corrupt  the  minds  of  many  inconsiderate  youth,  and 
render  tliem  useless  to  society. 

Without  your  own  best  exertions,  the  concern  of  others  for  your 
vrelfare,  will  be  of  little  avail:  with  them,  you  may  fairly  promise 
yourselves  success.  The  writer  of  this  address,  therefore,  recom- 
mends to  you,  an  earnest  co-operation  with  the  endeavours  of  your 
friends  to  promote  your  improvement  and  happiness.  This  co- 
operation, whilst  it  secures  your  own  progress,  will  afford  you  the 
heart-felt  satisfaction,  of  knpwing  that  you  are  cherishmg  the 
hopes,  and  augmenting  the  pleasures,  of  those  with  whom  you  are 
connected  by  the  most  endearing  ties.  He  recommends  to  you 
also,  serious  and  elevated  views  of  the  studies  in  which  you  noay 
be  engaged.  Whatever  may  be  your  attainments,  never  allow 
yourselves  to  rest  satisfied  with  mere  literary  acquisitions,  nor 
with  a  selfish  or  contracted  application  of  tliem.  When  they  ad- 
vance only  the  interests  of  this  stage  of  being,  and  look  not  be- 
yond the  present  transient  scene,  their  influence  is  circumscribed 
within  a  very  narrow  sphere.  The  great  tmsiness  of  this  life  is 
to  prepare,  and  qualify  us,  for  the  enjoyment  of  a  better,  by  cul- 
tivating a  pure  and  humble  state  of  mind,  and  cherishing  habits  of 
piety  towards  God,  and  benevolence  to  men.  Every  thing  that 
promotes  or  retards  this  important  work,  is  of  great  moment  to 
you,  and  claims  your  first  and  mast  serious  attention. 

If,  then,  the  cultivation  of  letters,  and  an  advancement  in  know- 
ledge, are  found  to  strengthen  and  enlarge  your  minds,  to  purify 
and  exalt  your  pleasures,  a.nd  to  dispose  you  to  pious  and  virtuous 
sentiments  and  conduct,  they  produce  excellent  effects;  which, 
with  your  best  endeavours  to  improve  them,  and  the  Divine  bless- 
ing superadded,  will  not  fail  to  render  you,  not  only  wise  and 
good  yourselves,  but  also  the  happy  instruments  of  diffusing  wis- 
dom, religion,  and  goodness  around  you.  Thus  improved,  your 
acquisitions  become  handmaids  to  virtue;  and  they  may  eventually 
serve  to  increase  the  rewards  which  the  Supreme  Being  has  pro- 


ADDRESS   TO  YOUNO  STUDENTS.  305*" 

jD3ise<iMo  faithful  and  well-directed  exertiwis,  for  the  promotion  of 
truth  and  goodness  amongst  men. 

But  if  you  counteract  the  hopes  of  your  friends,  and  the  ten* 
dency  of  these  attainments;  if  you  grow  vain  of  your  real  or  ima- 
ginary distinctions,  and  regard  with  contempt,  the  virtuous,  un- 
lettered mind;  if  you  suffer  yourselves  to  be  absorbed  in  over- 
curious  or  trifling  speculations;  if  your  heart  and  principles  be  de- 
based and  poisoned,  by  the  influence  of  corrupting  and  pemiciousr 
books,  for  which  no  elegance  of  composition  can  make  amends; 
if  you  spend  so  much  of  your  time  in  literary  engagements,  as  to 
make  them  interfere  with  higher  occupations,  and  lead  you  to 
forget,  that  pious  and  benevolent  action  is  the  great  end  of  your 
being:  if  such  be  the  unhappy  misapplication  of  your  acquisiiiona 
and  advantages,— instead  of  becoming  a  blessing  to  you,  they  will 
prove  the  occasion  of  greater  condemnation;  and,  in  tlie  hour  of 
SCI  ifus  thought,  they  may  excite  the  painful  reflections, — that  it 
would  liave  heen  better  for  you,  to  have  remained  illiterate  and 
unaspiring;  to  have  been  confined  to  the  humblest  walks  of  life; 
and  to  have  been  even  "hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water"'' 
all  your  days. 

Contemplating  the  dangers  to  which  you  are  exposed,  the  sor- 
rows and  dishonour  which  accompany  talents  misapplied,  and 
a  course  of  indolence  and  folly,  may  you  exert  your  utmost  en- 
deavours to  avoid  them!  Seriously  reflecting  on  the  great  end  for 
xvhich  you  were  brought  into  existence;  on  the  bright  and  encou- 
raging examples  of  many  excellent  young  persons;  and  on  the 
mournful  deviati6ns  of  others,  who  once  were  promising-;  may  you 
be  so  wise  as  to  choose  and  follow  that  path,  which  leads  to  ho- 
nour, usefulness,  and  true  enjoyment!  This  is  the  morning  of  your 
life,  in  which  pursuit  is  ardent,  and  obstacles  readily  give  way  to 
vigour  and  perseverance.  Embrace  this  favourable  season;  de- 
vote j'ourselves  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  virtue;  and 
humbly  pray  to  God  that  he  may  bless  your  labours.  Often  re- 
flect on  the  advantages  you  possess,  and  on  the  source  from  whence 
they  are  all  derived.  A  lively  sense  of  the  privileges  and  bless- 
ings, by  which  you  have  been  distinguished,  will  induce  you  to 
render  to  your  heavenly  Father,  the  just  returns  of  gratitude  and 
love:  and  these  fruits  of  early  goodness  will  be  regarded  by  him 
as  acceptable  offerings,  and  secure  to  you  his  favour  and  protec- 
tion. 

Whatever  difficulties  and  discouragements  may  be  found  in  re- 
sisting the  allurements  of  vice,  you  may  be  humbly  confident, 
that  Divine  assistance  will  be  aflbrded  to  all  your  good  and  pious 
resolutions;  and  that  every  virtuous  eflbrt  will  have  a  correspond- 
ent reward.  You  may  rest  assured  too,  that  all  the  advantages 
arising  from  vicious  indulgences,  are  light  and  contemptible,  as 
well  as  exceedingly  transient,  compared  with  the  substantial  en- 
joyments, the  present  pleasures^  and  the  future  hopes,  which  re- 
sult from  piety  and  virtue.  The  Holy  Scriptures  assure  us,  that 
"The  ways  of  wisdom  are  ways  of  pleasantness,  and  that  all  her 
paths  are  peace:"  "that  religion  has  the  promise  of  the  lifif^  that 
now  is,  and  of  that  which  is  to  come:"  and  that  the  truly  good 
man,  whatever  may  be  the  condition  allotted  to  him  by  Divine 
Providence,  "in  all  things  gives  thanks,  and  rejoices  even  in  tri- 


306  Addr^^ss  to  young  studejits. 

bulation." — Some  of  these  sentiments  have  been  finely  illiistrateet 
by  a  celebrated  poet.  •  The  author  of  this  address  presents  the  il- 
lustration to  you,  as  a  striking  and  beautiful  portrait  of  virtue: 
with  his  most  cordial  wisiies,  that  your  hearts  and  lives  may  cor- 
respond to  it;  and  that  jxjur  happiness  here,  may  be  an  earnest  of 
happiness  hereafter.  ^ 

"Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below: 

The  only  point  where  human  bliss  stands  still; 

And  tastes  the  good,  without  the  fall  to  ik 

Where  only  merit  constant  pay  receives, 

Is  bless'd  in  what  it  takes,  and  what  it  gives; 

The  joy  unequall'd,  if  its  end  it  gain. 

Ana  if  it  lose,  attended  with  no  pain: 

Without  satiety,  though  e'er  so  bless'd; 

And  but  more  relish'd  as  the  more  distress'd 

The  broadest  mirth  unfeeling  folly  wears, 

Less  pleasing  far  than  virtue's  very  tears: 

Good,  from  each  object,  from  each  place  acquired!; 

For  ever  exercis'd,  yet  never  tir'd; 

Never  elated,  while  one  man's  oppress'd; 

Never  dejected,  while  another's  bless'd: 

And  where  no  wants,  no  wishes  can  remain; 

Since  but  to  wish  more  virtue  is  to  gain. — 

For  him  alone  hope  leads  from  goal  to  goal. 

And  opens  still,  and  opens  on  his  soul; 

Till  lengthen'd  on  to  faith,  and  unconfin'd. 

It  pours  the  blisg  that  fills  up  all  the  mind."^ 


THE  END 


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